BY ROMMIE L. DUCKWORTH
Just before 7 a.m. on February 15, 2024, the Los Angeles City (CA) Fire Department (LAFD) responded to a report of a truck fire on N. Alameda St. in the Wilmington area of Los Angeles. Firefighters arrived to find a semi-truck, no trailer attached, on fire. Like many vehicles across the nation, the truck was powered not by diesel fuel or gasoline. It used twin 100-gallon tanks of compressed natural gas (CNG) for long-range and reduced emissions. According to the LAFD, first-arriving engines deployed hoselines and applied water to extinguish the fire.1 Six minutes into this operation, one of the cylinders exploded, shooting a fireball into the sky and sending nine firefighters to the hospital, several in critical condition.1
Firefighters are much more likely to encounter vehicles powered by alternative fuels than just a few years ago.2 More than 33 million vehicles on America’s roadways already use alternative fuels.3,4 Besides hybrid and all-electric vehicles, alternative fuels used in cars, trucks, and buses include alcohol blends, compressed and liquified petroleum gases, hydrogen, and more.2 Even gasoline and diesel fuels now bear little resemblance to the way we’ve traditionally thought of them. On top of modern emissions, maintenance, and performance-improving additives, virtually all diesel now sold is partially biodiesel, just as virtually all gasoline now contains a significant amount of ethanol.5,6 As a result, firefighters need to update how they think about motor vehicle collision response. It isn’t good enough anymore to try to identify hazards based on a vehicle being gas, diesel, or electric.7 With a wide variety of fuels powering vehicles that travel American roadways, firefighters need to adopt universal steps to help them identify and manage threats from virtually any fuel source at any vehicle-related incident.
Hazards Presented by Alternative Fuel Vehicles (AFVs)
When arriving at a significant motor vehicle collision with extrication or fire, firefighters naturally hope to get straight to work, often wanting to start extinguishing fire or bending and cutting metal immediately. However, every vehicle fuel is a form of concentrated energy, and this concentrated energy presents a significant potential hazard to vehicle occupants, bystanders, firefighters, and the environment. Starting with universal steps to vehicle incidents can help avoid complacency with “normal” fuels or fear or frustration with “alternative” fuels.
The first myth to bust is that alternative fuels inherently present firefighters with more danger than “normal” fuel. Alternative fuel sources present no more hazards under ordinary operating conditions than petroleum-based gasoline or diesel fuel. Virtually all modern vehicles have redundant safety systems that protect fuel storage and delivery in a collision. In fact, many alternative fuel tanks, such as those for compressed or liquified gas or electric-powered vehicles, have far greater reinforcement than typical gas tanks, and most alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs) have additional safety features and systems.8 However, firefighters who aren’t aware of these systems may unintentionally override or defeat them, causing additional hazards.
Alternative fuel vehicles do not automatically become “ticking bombs” just because they are involved in a minor fender bender.8,9 There is no reason for firefighters to be any less cautious around gas or diesel fuel vehicles than when they encounter compressed gas, electric, or hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Firefighters responding to motor vehicle collisions that think of gas and diesel fuel as “normal” and other fuels as “special” are at risk of complacency at incidents where they should exhibit caution, or they may worry about the degree of AFV hazards in ways that interfere with operations, especially firefighting and extrication.
| Fuel | LEL | UEL | Autoignition | Specific Gravity |
| Ethanol | 3.0 | 19.0 | 700°F | >15% gas blends mix with water |
| Gasoline | 1.0 | 8.0 | 500°F | <15% blends float on water |
| Diesel Fuel | 0.5 | 8.0 | 400°F | Floats on water |
| Biodiesel | 0.5 | 6.5 | 800°F | Floats on water |
| CNG | 5.0 | 15.0 | 1,200°F | Lighter than air |
| LPG | 2.0 | 10.0 | 1,000°F | Heavier than air |
| LNG | 5.0 | 15.0 | 1,200°F | Heavier, than lighter than air |
| Hydrogen | 4.0 | 75.0 | 1,000°F | Lighter than air |
| Fuel | Special Hazards | Operations |
| Ethanol | Light flame/little smoke, breaks down foam | AR-AFFF foam |
| Gasoline | Wants to change from liquid to explosive gas | AFFF foam |
| Diesel Fuel | — | AFFF foam |
| Biodiesel | Slightly less hazardous than diesel fuel | AFFF foam |
| CNG | High pressure, light flame/little smoke, breaks down foam | Do NOT apply water directly to tanks |
| LPG | Light flame/little smoke, breaks down foam | Cool tanks directly if necessary |
| LNG | Cryogenic, light flame/little smoke | Do NOT apply water directly to tanks |
| Hydrogen | May be cryogenic or high pressure, invisible flame | Do NOT apply water directly to tanks |
Types of Alternative Fuel Vehicles
This is an overview of the types of alternative fuel vehicles you are already encountering. For each type of fuel, firefighters should understand why the fuel is used, its special features, special hazards, and special recommendations for firefighters.
Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Blends
Gasoline blends
Although many early automobiles used alcohol for fuel, it wasn’t until the 1970s gas crisis that it began to be regularly mixed with gasoline.10-11 More than 98% of gasoline in North America contains ethanol, a plant-derived, environmentally friendly octane enhancer that reduces fuel prices and hydrocarbon emissions.12 Ethanol/gasoline mixtures can vary depending on location, demand, and time of year and are identified by the numeric percentage of ethanol.12 For example, a mixture of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline is labeled E10.
Ethanol-Blended Fuels: The Basics
Gasoline has a high vapor pressure (ranging from 38-300 mm/Hg), producing more vapor the higher the temperature.13 Gasoline wants to evaporate from a flammable liquid into flammable gas very easily at room temperature and above.13 In this way, firefighters may generally think of gasoline as a flammable gas that is stored only temporarily as a liquid, which is why it can be interchanged so easily in vehicles with flammable gas fuel sources. Diesel fuel also wants to evaporate, but more slowly with a vapor pressure at around only 2 mm/Hg.14 Gasoline generally has a flash point (produces gases that can be ignited) of -45°F and an autoignition temperature (temperature where gases ignite without an outside spark or flame) of approximately 500°F, whereas diesel fuel has a flash point of approximately 100°F and an autoignition temperature of approximately 400° F.15,16 Gasoline and diesel fuel are both non-polar and non-miscible, (do not mix with water), with specific gravities less than 1 (they float on water).13–15 Non-blended gasoline and diesel fuel have narrow flammable ranges between approximately 1% to 8%.17 Initial actions for these kinds of spills and fires are outlined in the Department of Transportation Emergency Response Guide (DOT ERG) number 128.18
Although they are both flammable liquids, blending in ethanol alcohol begins to change the properties of gasoline by increasing its ability to turn from a liquid into a flammable gas, mix with water, break down certain firefighting foams, and auto-ignite.12–15,19 Ethanol blends of E15 (15% ethanol) or more will burn with a flame that is more clear and produces less smoke. 20 The higher the percentage of ethanol in a gasoline fuel mixture, the more difficult it can be to realize that a vehicle is on fire, especially during the day. A thermal imaging camera (TIC) can identify heat produced by an alcohol-fueled fire before contact is made. Other initial actions for these kinds of spills and fires are outlined in the DOT ERG guide 127.18
Firefighters may commonly encounter ethanol blends of 15% (E15) ethanol or more. These gasoline/ethanol blends above 15% will mix with water rather than float on top.20 Firefighters should treat them as polar solvents, like alcohol fires. Polar solvents mix with water and are destructive to most firefighting foams.
E15 blends are approved for virtually all 2001 and newer light-duty, gasoline-powered vehicles, with higher percentages of ethanol used in some AFVs.21 These fuel percentages can also flip from 15% ethanol/85% gasoline to 85% ethanol/15% gasoline. Fuel mixtures containing 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline (E85) are known commonly as “flex fuel.”12 Despite the much higher percentage of ethanol, fires involving E85 flex fuel can be handled in the same way as E15 blends: similar to gasoline fires, but with considerations of the polar solvent and “clearer burning” problems. Some heavy-duty gasoline engines can use 98% (E98) ethanol fuel mixes, while others, more commonly outside of the United States, use pure ethanol (E100).22 These should be approached as pure ethanol fires. Although some diesel-ethanol blend fuels have been developed, they are not currently in widespread use.23
Recommendations
Firefighters should be aware that small, medium, and large vehicles of all types may be using alternative fuels including gasoline/ethanol blends. Vehicles using these plans may not necessarily be labeled or appear different from “traditional” gas-powered vehicles. Initial guidance for flammable liquid spills, leaks, and fires can be found in DOT ERG guide 128. Firefighters should consider using tools such as a combustible gas meter and a thermal imaging camera (TIC) regularly at motor vehicle collisions as these can be useful to help identify hard-to-find hazards. Developing the habit of using these tools routinely at motor vehicle collisions, extractions, spills, leaks, and fires means that they will be already on hand when encountering special alternative fuel hazards discussed later.
Aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF) and alcohol-resistant aqueous film-forming foams (AR-AFFF) are used to control flammable and combustible liquid fires (class B).24 However, polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) contained in older versions of these foams pose a significant cancer threat to the drinking water for communities in which they are used, as well as to firefighters using them.25 Manufacturers are continuing to develop new AFFF and AR-AFFF firefighting foams that do not contain or produce PFAS. In the meantime, when class B fires pose a direct threat to life, it may make sense to use AFFF or AR-AFFF if available, recognizing that their use will demand significant work and a high-cost, including and increased risk of cancer for firefighters and the community.25
Diesel Fuel Blends
Just as virtually all gasoline in North America contains ethanol, virtually all American diesel fuel can be considered “biodiesel.” According to the U.S. Department of Energy, “biodiesel and conventional diesel vehicles are one and the same.” 26 However, biodiesel and renewable diesel are different products.26 Biodiesel, also known as fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), can be made from vegetable oil, animal fats, restaurant waste grease, and even algae.27 Like ethanol blends, biodiesel is identified by percentage, with 20% biodiesel (B20) being the most common.26 Biodiesel can be mixed with “regular” petroleum diesel (petrodiesel) to fuel virtually any conventional diesel engine in a car, bus, or light or heavy truck without modification.28 It can also be used as 100% biodiesel (B100) with slight modifications to the fuel tank.28 In fact, the first diesel engines ran on peanut oil.29
Adding biodiesel raises the cetane rating of diesel fuel, improves lubricity, and reduces emissions, but slightly reduces the vehicle’s power output and has a more limited length of storage.30 Made through a different production process, renewable diesel is a plant-based hydrocarbon fuel that can power any standard diesel engine.30 Essentially, renewable plant-based hydrocarbon diesel fuel is a direct replacement for “regular” petrodiesel with all of the same hazards and firefighting recommendations.30 While the flash and freezing points of biodiesel fuels vary depending on their manufacturing process, biodiesel generally has a higher freezing temperature (freezes sooner) compared to petrodiesel.31
Recommendations
Biodiesel presents lower health, flammability, and reactivity hazard than petrodiesel but produces much more heat when burning.29 From a fire/rescue perspective, renewable and biodiesel both have essentially the same properties as petrodiesel. There is no significant polar solvent problem with either biodiesel or renewable diesel blends, so firefighters can follow the DOT ERG number 128 for initial actions for fires involving these fuels.18 Again, routine use of a TIC and combustible gas meter can help firefighters rapidly set up safety zones and identify hidden hazards.
Compressed and liquefied gases
Gasoline and diesel mixes aren’t the only fossil fuels powering the cars, trucks, and buses on American roadways. For many types of vehicles, compressed and liquefied gases are attractive alternatives.32 Consider that flammable gases work very much like gasoline, with the important difference that these fuels are stored under pressure. However, firefighters should not be any more or less cautious dealing with a gasoline blend-powered vehicle than one powered by compressed or liquified gases.
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
Compressed natural gas is often obtained during the distillation of gasoline, diesel, and kerosene, but can also be manufactured from renewable waste resources. CNG is produced domestically and is made up of 93% methane.33 Although flammable, CNG is odorless, tasteless, and nontoxic (although it can exclude oxygen) and emits fewer hazardous emissions than “regular” vehicle fuels.33 Although methane, like propane and most other fuel gases, is odorless in its natural state, the odorant mercaptan is added during preparation to make it easy to detect.33 CNG powers more than 175,000 vehicles in the United States. Due to lower cost and emissions, CNG vehicles are appealing for use in high-mileage, centrally fueled fleet vehicles such as buses, but can power anything from passenger vehicle to heavy trucks.34 The horsepower, acceleration, and cruise speed of CNG power are comparable to those of gas and diesel-fueled vehicles.34 Small, medium, and large CNG vehicles are available from original manufacturers and through retrofitters.34 Many vehicles run on 100% CNG. However, bi-fuel vehicles can switch between either CNG or gasoline, and dual-fuel vehicles, usually heavy-duty, use a mixture of diesel fuel and CNG for ignition assistance.34 Both bi-fuel and dual-fuel vehicles have two tanks and, thus, present the hazards and firefighting considerations of CNG and gasoline or diesel.34
Recommendations
CNG is stored on vehicles at high pressure, approximately 3,600 psi.34 While this pressure may present a significant hazard, the fiber-wrapped tanks are hardened far more than gasoline tanks. Small CNG leaks tend to dissipate without major issues as CNG is non-toxic, lighter than air, has a narrow flammability range of 5%-15%, and has a high autoignition temperature (1,200 deg F).35 As with any motor vehicle incident, damage to tanks and fuel lines, whether from the collision or extrication efforts, should be identified and addressed using tools including a TIC and combustible gas meter. CNG burns cleaner that gasoline and diesel blends, so a TIC can be useful for identifying flame hazards and a combustible gas meter can identify areas where CNG leaks are significant. Initial actions for incidents involving CNG are outlined in the DOT ERG number 115.18 However, these are conservative recommendations for any flammable gas and may not reflect the relatively low hazard presented by CNG.
CNG cylinders are fitted with temperature-activated pressure relief devices (TPRDs) because the fire may cause the failure of the composite wrap before the pressure in these cylinders begins to increase significantly.8 Each CNG cylinder will have its own TPRD. Temperature-activated pressure relief devices will activate between 220-240°F, when a glass bulb or fusible plug will break, like a sprinkler head. When the TPRD activates, it will vent the remaining contents of the cylinder.8 TPRDs do not reset like pressure relief devices.
Counterintuitively, firefighters should NOT apply water directly to CNG cylinders as this can cool the TPRD, deactivating this. Applying water to a CNG cylinder can allow the cylinder to suddenly rupture due to defeating the TPRD safety valve. If it is reasonable to do so, the fuel should be shut off. If the cylinder itself is burning or exposed to flame, firefighters should clear a safety area of a minimum of 50 feet. Water may still be used to protect exposures.
If you are unsure of the fuel source, do not apply water to the cylinders. TPRD may vent fuel and flame up to 50 feet from the cylinders. Evacuate the area up to 100 feet in all directions and monitor with a TIC and combustible gas meter.
Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)
LPG (propane) is a liquefied gas byproduct obtained when extracting crude petroleum.36 LPG is primarily propane mixed with butane and traces of other gases. It weighs twice as much as air and is colorless, odorless, and highly flammable.20,23 A gallon of propane has 27% less energy than a gallon of gasoline, slightly lowering fuel economy. However, propane has a much higher octane rating than gasoline, which some vehicles are built to take advantage of, resulting in higher performance and improved fuel economy.36
Recommendations
Like CNG (natural gas), LPG (propane) is nontoxic and has a very high autoignition temperature (approximately 1,200°F).36 Although leaking CNG dissipates quickly because it is lighter than air, heavier LPG will collect on the ground and in low-lying areas, creating a pool of invisible flammable gas that will require a gas meter to identify a safe zone.33 Again, use a TIC and combustible gas meter to identify hazard areas. Remember that many fire department flammable gas meters are calibrated to pentane rather than methane (CNG) or propane (LPG).37 This allows for a safety factor when establishing the danger zone when managing an incident involving a CNG or LPG-fueled vehicle.
Water can be used to cool LPG tanks that are on fire or have flame impinging on them as they have regular pressure relief devices. If possible, shut off the fuel source to extinguish an LPG fire. Do not extinguish an LPG fire that will leave leaking LPG to present an explosion hazard.24
Liquified Natural Gas (LNG)
Like compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied natural gas (LNG) is primarily methane.33 As a result, the physical properties and hazard profile are almost identical, with just a few crucial differences. First, natural gas is liquefied by cooling it to extremely low temperatures (-260°F), reducing the volume to 1/600 of its original size for cost-effective storage and transportation.38 This mean that when it leaks, it can expand 600 times from liquid to gas form. Since it is cooled rather than compressed, LNG is stored at a much lower pressure than CNG (120-220 psi).33 LNG will stay at a near-constant low temperature as long as it remains pressurized. Because of this process, LNG cannot be oderized with mercaptan, but it produces a white vapor cloud when released. Virtually any LNG vehicle or storage facility should have gas detectors to alert users and firefighters of a leak.38 Unlike CNG, LNG tanks may occasionally vent off natural gas if stored unused for extended periods. This is a normal condition and does not indicate a failure of the fuel tank.33
LNG has the energy density of petrodiesel and takes up less space than CNG, making it an attractive choice for long-haul trucking companies.33 However, because LNG is a cryogenic liquid, fueling and storage are more complex and costly.33 The freezing storage temperatures of LNG mean that, unlike CNG methane, which dissipates quickly, LNG methane will first pool on the ground, like heavier LPG propane, presenting a potential fire or asphyxiation hazard.33 This is important for extrication scenarios such as an LNG or LPG-fueled vehicle with a leak positioned in a low-lying area where gas may collect, posing a significant hazard to occupants, firefighters, and others in the surrounding area. In addition to these hazards, a major LNG leak will also pose a cryogenic hazard to anyone or anything that may come in contact with the leak.33
Recommendations
Water should not be applied directly to an LNG leak or fire because the relatively warm firefighting water, compared to the extreme cold of LNG, can cause sudden vaporization and fuel release. However, water may be used to protect exposures and dissipate LNG vapor clouds.11 Other than that, all previous recommendations for handling flammable gases also apply to LNG.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is an abundant, zero-carbon gas that can be used either in an internal combustion engine similar to CNG or LPG, or it can be used to power a fuel cell electric vehicle by using hydrogen without combustion to produce electricity.39 California is currently the only state in the U.S. with the infrastructure to regularly fuel hydrogen vehicles. Hydrogen-powered internal combustion engines can be found on various passenger, utility, and heavy-duty vehicles from companies like Toyota, Renault, BMW, Honda, Yamaha, and Suzuki. Hydrogen-fueled internal combustion vehicles use a modified type of gasoline-powered engine that uses hydrogen instead of gasoline. Hydrogen internal combustion engines are more efficient in larger capacities, making them well-suited for trucking utility. Hydrogen internal combustion engines are currently in greater development outside of the U.S. but may be seen in more significant numbers in the future.
Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, nontoxic, highly combustible gas. At 14 times later than air, hydrogen has a wide flammable range (4-75%).40 Hydrogen is a small molecule and, as a result, easily leaks through small cracks or gaps in fuel lines and fittings. Like ethanol, hydrogen-fueled fires produce a virtually colorless flame and almost no smoke, making them extremely difficult to detect with the naked eye. Hydrogen is easily ignited but is not detectable by some types of combustible gas detectors.41
Hydrogen can be stored on a vehicle as a compressed gas, like CNG or LPG, or as a cryogenic liquid, like LNG.42 High-pressure hydrogen storage cylinders may be at 3,600, 5,000, or even 10,000 psi. Hydrogen may also be stored on a vehicle as non-pressurized chemical compounds, such as metal hydride and sorbent materials, which have their own hazardous materials profiles but, right now, are not used much outside of concept vehicles.42
Recommendations
Firefighters approaching a vehicle powered by hydrogen should, again, use a TIC and combustible gas meter as hydrogen burns extremely clean and fire may not be visible until firefighters or civilians are already standing in flame. In addition, hydrogen cylinders may store hydrogen at very high pressures or under cryogenic conditions, requiring precautions and safety distances like CNG and LNG incidents. Water should also not be applied to cool hydrogen cylinders because high-pressure cylinders use TPRDs similar to CNG and low-pressure cryogenic cylinders can warm and expand gas similar to LNG. All other flammable gas recommendations also apply to hydrogen powered vehicles.
Knowledge Is Critical
Under normal operating conditions, “alternative” fuels pose no inherent threat to firefighters, bystanders, or the environment. However, during motor vehicle collisions, safety systems may fail, and fuel containers and transmission lines may be compromised, leak, or rupture. Physical force, heat, or other conditions may cause pressures to rise or vapors to ignite. Although the sight of fire or of a victim calling for help may trigger a firefighter’s instinct to rush in, the way to be successful at motor vehicle collisions is to work in a coordinated method using recommendations that prioritize life safety, incident stabilization, and property conservation.
We’ve presented general information about different alternative fuel systems, but specific vehicle designs and safety systems for each make and model are beyond the scope of this article. However, the NFPA maintains an online collection of current response guides for alternative fuel vehicles at WWW.BIT.LY/NFPAAFVERG These guides are organized by manufacturer with links to specific alternative fuel models.8
Now that you know, share it with someone who might not. Put it into practice. Pass it on.
Citations
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ROMMIE L. DUCKWORTH is a career fire captain and paramedic EMS coordinator for the Ridgefield (CT) Fire Department. A contributing editor for Fire Engineering and JEMS, Rom has over 30 years of experience working in career and volunteer fire agencies as a firefighter and rescue coordinator. He has been an adjunct instructor for rescue and extrication programs for the Connecticut Fire Academy. He holds a master’s degree in public administration, a bachelor’s in fire service administration, is a graduate of the National Fire Academy’s Executive Fire Officer Program, and is credentialed by the Center for Public Safety Excellence as a fire officer. Rom is a frequent speaker at national conferences and a regular contributor to research programs, magazines, and textbooks on fire and emergency service topics and can be seen at the upcoming FDIC International 2024.
