Fire Engineering Singles Out the Most Significant Events of the Past Year
Editor’s note: We present here events and developments over the past 12 months that carry extraordinary significance for the nation’s fire service. Though some of the stories first broke more than 12 months ago, their significance is ongoing. We emphasized in our selection process the national reaction, discussion, and debate as much as the event or development itself-that is, “aftershock” was an important criteria, in our estimation. Here are our “Top Eleven,” in no particular order. We invite you to send us a letter describing your own thoughts on the most important fire service happenings.
PHILADELPHIA FIRE DEPARTMENT SOUNDS ALERT FOR HEPATITIS C THREAT
Philadelphia (PA) Fire Department (PFD) firefighters screened for hepatitis C (HCV) in 1999 were found to have an infection rate almost three times the average for the U.S. population. This news resounded through the fire service-a jolting reminder that not all hazards lurk on the fireground or rescue scene. Many fire departments began to look more closely at their infection-control policies, to conduct or to contemplate conducting tests among their members, and to investigate how such testing and the prolonged illness of members who contracted an infectious disease would be financed.
The International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF), as a result of the Philadelphia revelation, is looking more closely at retirees, according to George T. Burke, assistant to the president and director of public relations for the IAFF. “In many instances, we have lost track of our people; now, we will be monitoring them in terms of illnesses that may be related to the job that strike them later in life,” he explains.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has refuted the Philadelphia HCV findings. In a report issued in July, the CDC concluded that first responders are not at greater risk than the general population for HCV infection and that routine HCV testing, therefore, is not warranted.
Many in the fire and emergency medical services do not agree with the CDC’s position. Among them are the Philadelphia Fire Department Local 22 and the IAFF. The IAFF has voiced strong objections to the CDC report in a letter to Donna Shalala, secretary of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The letter noted that the IAFF believes that the “CDC’s conclusion that emergency response personnel are not at increased risk for Hepatitis C infection is scientifically flawed” and called the CDC’s recommendation that “emergency responder personnel not receive ‘baseline’ testing for Hepatitis C misleading and will make it more difficult to determine when an infection is occupationally related.”
THE FIRE BILL: THE FIRE SERVICE IS NOW “PART OF THE NATIONAL PUBLIC SAFETY EQUATION”
The year 2000 saw a monumental effort on the part of the fire service and friends in Congress to advance the Firefighter Investment and Response Enhancement (FIRE) Act, legislation to create a federal direct grant program for local fire departments. The effort began to bear fruit late in the year: Language from the original FIRE Act was included as an amendment to the Defense Authorization Act for 2001 and 2002, as part of a package of significant fire-related legislation (see “The Glass Is Half Full and Half Empty,” Editor’s Opinion, November 2000, page 4). The Act, with its fire service amendment, passed both the House and the Senate and was signed into law by President Clinton. The Act authorizes $100 million for 2001 and $300 million for 2002 in direct grant monies to local fire departments.
Although the fire allocation has yet to be appropriated by Congress, the FIRE Act is the first of its kind in the history of the United States. It cements the concept that first response to domestic emergencies of all kinds by local fire departments demands a strong federal commitment of resources and, in a real sense, opens the door to federal support of the nation’s fire service in the future.
WILDFIRES: A YEAR OF RECORD DEVASTATION
From January to October 21, 2000, 84,960 wildfires devastated a total of nearly seven million acres across the United States, almost twice the average number of acres (3,786,411) burned annually between 1990 and 1999. For that same period, there were an average of 106,393 wildfires annually. As of October 12, the total fire suppression cost was $877,847,296, and 852 structures were destroyed.
Weather patterns played a significant role in the devastation, with a wet winter in the northwestern United States and dry conditions along the southern tier from California to Florida. The absence of seasonal monsoons in the Southwest, dry vegetation, record-low fuel moisture, and persistently hot weather in much of the West were also important factors in the wildfire season. The season began early, became intense and widespread, and lasted for an unusually long period.
In terms of acreage burned, states in the West were severely affected, particularly Idaho (1,282,862); Montana (947,819); Alaska (751,233); and Nevada (633,242), representing more than half the total burned as of October 16.
A 1,000-acre prescribed fire set May 4 in the Bandelier National Monument near Los Alamos, New Mexico, was driven across control lines by erratic winds and was not controlled for weeks. In the end, 235 homes and 47,650 acres were destroyed, representing more than 10 percent of the state’s total burned acreage to date (460,479). The incident raised questions regarding the advisability of controlled burns and the need to take wind conditions into account.
By the end of August, more than 30,000 people-civilian firefighters; state personnel; military personnel; and personnel from Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Mexico were on firelines or filling overhead positions. Because of the extremely dry fuels, hot and dry weather, and gusty winds in many areas, some of the fires were among the toughest to fight in the past 50 years.
Subsequent to the wildland season, Congress allocated $1.2 billion to the Department of Forestry and Bureau of Land Management to step up prevention and suppression efforts against wildland fires.
Source: “Wildland Fire Season Overview: January through October 2000,” National Fire News, National Interagency Fire Center Web site, www.nifc.gov/fireinfo/nfn.html.
SETON HALL FIRE: IMPETUS FOR LANDMARK SPRINKLER LEGISLATION
The tragic fire that occurred at Seton Hall University in South Orange, New Jersey, in January 2000, was significant not only because three students died and 54 students, two firefighters, and three police officers were injured, but also because it led to landmark legislation in the state and focused national attention on the issue of automatic fire suppression in dormitories.
The Dormitory Safety Trust Fund Act (S-891), which became New Jersey law in July 2000, requires that automatic sprinkler systems be installed within four years in all dormitory rooms in public and private colleges, universities, and boarding schools. Privately owned buildings used as dormitories for students, such as fraternity and sorority houses, and at public and private schools and other educational public and private institutions also must install automatic fire suppression systems, depending on occupancy size. (See “Seton Hall: From Tragedy to Triumph,” September 2000.)
Public and private institutions of higher education will be granted no-interest loans to install the sprinkler systems; two-percent loans would be available for secondary schools, military and boarding schools, and similar establishments. Sprinkler installation projects begun up to 12 months before the bill’s effective date are eligible to be included in the plan.
KEOKUK, IOWA, TRAGEDY HIGHLIGHTS THE VAST DISPARITY IN BENEFITS
The deaths of Assistant Chief Dave McNally, 48; Firefighter Jason Bitting, 29; and Firefighter Nate Tuck, 39, in an apartment fire in Keokuk, Iowa, in December 1999, brought to the forefront an issue that can compound the tragedy for many survivors of fallen firefighters: the vast differences in firefighter death and survivor benefits that exist across the country. In fact, many small fire departments have no benefits at all; they simply cannot afford to join state pension plans even if they exist in their states.
The state of Iowa does not have a statewide public safety line-of-duty death benefit payment system. The Keokuk City Council voted not to pay for the funerals of these firefighters; an anonymous donor ultimately stepped forward and paid for them. The families’ health insurance benefits were cut off, but each family received $80,000 in life insurance.
Contrast this with benefits available for firefighters who work in other states and big city departments.
 The nation and community of Worcester mourn the loss of six brothers. (photo by Scott LaPrade) |
In Worcester, Massachusetts, families of the six firefighters killed in December 1999 will receive 100 percent of the firefighters’ pensions, free health insurance, a $100,000 lump sum payment, and free college tuition for the children.
In New York City, the widow receives 100 percent of the firefighter’s salary, tax-free; college scholarships for the children; and basic health care coverage. New York State has increased the maximum death benefit provided to the families of volunteer firefighters killed in the line of duty to $6,000 as of January 1, 1999. There is no maximum if the death is the direct result of firefighting. The lump sum payment to surviving spouses (or estates) was increased to $50,000.
In Texas, Firefighters Brian Collins, 35; Phillip Dean, 29; and Garry Sanders, 20, were killed while fighting a church fire in Lake Worth, Texas. Collins and Dean, career firefighters in the Fort Worth (TX) Fire Department, responded to the Lake Worth fire as volunteers for the River Oaks (TX) Fire Department. Sanders was a volunteer in the Sansom Park (TX) Fire Department. Instead of receiving their husbands’ full pensions, which survivors of firefighters killed while fighting a fire in Forth Worth would normally receive, the widows of Collins and Dean were given pensions based on the firefighters’ actual years of service-$1,200 a month vs. $2,900 a month for Collins and $400 a month instead of $2,000 for Dean-because the firefighters died as “volunteer” firefighters in another locality. Fortunately, Lake Worth and River Oaks had some life insurance and workers’ compensation/death benefits coverage, respectively, for their volunteer firefighters. The Collins and Dean families received these benefits. It is also worth noting that of the state’s 1,500 to 1,600 volunteer fire departments, River Oaks is one of the 247 covered by some type of pension plan; Sansom Park is not.
In terms of federal benefits, firefighters and members of a public rescue squad or ambulance crew are now covered under the Public Safety Officers’ Benefit (PSOB) Act (42 U.S.C. 3796, et seq.) program, administered by the Department of Justice. The plan provides a $143,943 death benefit to the eligible survivors of federal, state, and local public safety officers who die as “the direct and proximate result of a personal (traumatic) injury sustained in the line of duty.” The benefit is adjusted on October 1 of each year by the percentage of the change that occurred in the Consumer Price Index during the previous year.
The National Fallen Firefighters Foundation initiated a scholarship program in 1996. Spouses and children of fallen firefighters may apply for funding for educational and job training. This program “fills in” when state educational benefits aren’t available.
There are no accurate national statistics available pertaining to firefighter survivor and disability benefits. Establishing a comprehensive database might be an effective first step in analyzing what is being done around the country, the obstacles that are preventing every firefighter/first responder from receiving at least some type of universal minimum coverage, and ways to overcome these impediments. The database should include cost information also. Once the information has been evaluated, the fire service would then be able to come up with a plan that can be presented to employers and state and federal legislators.
NFPA CREATES NEW BUILDING CODE
In March 2000, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Board of Directors voted to approve a plan to create a new code, entitled NFPA 5000: The NFPA Building CodeTM. The creation of a building code was a major step for the NFPA-one that places it in direct competition with the International Code Council’s (ICC) International Building Code.
The ICC was created in 1994 by the three “model” building code groups in the United States-the Building Officials and Code Administrators; the International Conference of Building Officials; and the Southern Building Code Congress International. The goal of the ICC was to create a single set of “comprehensive and coordinated national codes.” Over the years, building codes (as well as fire codes) have tended to be adopted regionally with each one of the three model code groups dominating a particular area of the United States.
For several years, the ICC and the NFPA had attempted to join together to create the desired single “national” set of construction codes. Reportedly, conflicts began to arise between the ICC and the NFPA-among them, the NFPA’s desire to continue to produce a separate fire code (NFPA 1: Fire Prevention CodeTM) even after an International Fire CodeTM had been created. With such disputes, the “joint” relationship between the NFPA and the ICC was dissolved in 1998, when both parties mutually agreed to go their separate ways and each produce its own set of codes.
In creating NFPA 5000, the NFPA has looked to the Reedy Creek Improvement District (RCID) in Florida for use of its EPCOT Building CodeTM. Developed by the RCID for use in Walt Disney World, the NFPA felt that the EPCOT Building CodeTM was “adaptable to innovative and challenging construction.”
At press time, a draft copy of NFPA 5000 was available for comment by the public. The NFPA anticipates the final version of NFPA 5000 will be issued in 2002.
FIREFIGHTER LINE-OF-DUTY DEATHS INCREASE
Firefighter line-of-duty deaths increased to 112 in 1999 (official statistics released in 2000), after a four-year downward trend, according to the United States Fire Administration (USFA). Moreover, the number of deaths was more than 100 for the first time since 1994 and is the highest number of deaths since 1989, when 119 firefighters died.
 The National Firefighters Memorial in Emmitsburg, MD (Photo by Bill Green) |
Heart attacks again were listed as the leading cause of death, claiming 52 lives. Multifatality incidents claimed 22 lives. Another six victims died in apparatus collisions or rollovers.
As of November 1, 72 firefighters died in the line of duty in 2000, according to the USFA.
In 1998, 91 firefighters died, 39 from heart attacks, 17 in vehicle crashes, and 22 of the remaining 35 from fatal injuries at the fire scene. Of these, 16 died either in the fire structure or on the roofs of burning buildings.
In 1997, 94 firefighters died while on duty, with heart attacks (38) as the leading cause of death. Eighteen victims died from vehicle crashes, 12 of these while responding to alarms.
The statistics reflect the continuing importance of maintaining firefighter fitness, safe driving while responding to an incident, and fireground operational competency and safety practices.
NFPA 1710 DEBATE ACCELERATES
The debate surrounding proposed NFPA 1710, Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire Departments, hit full stride and consumed much paper and ink in 2000.
The proposed standard’s hot-button issues-apparatus staffing, fireground staffing, and response times-elicited strong reaction, both for and against. As the standard cycle swung into the comment period, the 1710 Technical Committee received a flood of anti-1710 responses, particularly from groups in Oregon and Washington and chiefs groups around the country.
Opponents complain that fire department deployment is a local issue and that demanding a minimum of four personnel per fire apparatus will cripple fire department budgets, particularly in areas without a large tax base. They also argue that in jurisdictions with diffuse populations, the fire department would rarely be able to meet the four-minute initial unit response and eight-minute full first-alarm response requirements in the standard.
Proponents argue for the standard’s requirements on the basis of firefighter safety; increased service to the public, most notably in the area of first response to medical emergencies; and generally accepted firefighting tactics.
Should it pass through the standards process, NFPA 1710 would be a landmark document that would have a strong influence in holding career fire departments accountable to a uniform standard of operations. The heated debate is expected to continue into May 2001, when the NFPA convenes its annual meeting in Anaheim, California, during which time 1710 will be up for a final floor vote.
SIX BROTHERS FALL IN WORCESTER
The aftershock of the line-of-duty deaths of six Worcester firefighters in a cold storage warehouse in December 1999 carried well into 2000. The funeral for these firefighters revealed a tremendous show of solidarity from firefighters across the nation. More importantly, the deaths rekindled the debate about firefighter risk exposure in dangerous buildings under fire conditions. The Worcester tragedy called out loudly to communities large and small that vacant building policies and policing are necessary to minimize firefighter risk-an undertaking requiring political action and community partnerships. It also warned firefighters of the catastrophic consequences of not preplanning structures.
Since the tragedy, dialogue into fire department “rules of engagement” has heightened-a positive effect of a terrible event.
“LADDER BAIL” FIREFIGHTER SURVIVAL TRAINING CALLED INTO QUESTION
The death of Captain Tom Moore of the Manteca (CA) Fire Department during a training exercise in mid-1999 and subsequent Manteca Board of Inquiry Report released in 2000 became the catalysts for debate over the popular firefighter survival training technique known as the ladder bail.
Moore, an instructor, died while attempting to perform a version of the technique without appropriate safety measures in place. The ladder slide was not part of the training scheduled that day. Moore, in an impulsive action, catapulted out of a laddered window headfirst and fell to this death, never having gained control of the ladder to slow his descent.
Despite these unusual circumstances, the Manteca Board of Inquiry Report and many within the fire service condemned the practice of ladder bail survival training in any form. Cal OSHA, California’s state occupational safety and health regulatory agency, also condemned the current ladder bail methodologies as a violation of state law.
Supporters of the training called the condemnation a knee-jerk reaction. They were quick to underscore the fact that Moore had performed the maneuver in a dangerous manner, counter to prescribed training practices and that, while some firefighters have been injured in ladder bail exercises, thousands have received the training safely. Supporters use recorded incidences of ladder escapes at real fires to justify their position that firefighters must be given the training skills to remove themselves from any dangerous fireground situation, including from ladders, should it be necessary.
The debate in the wake of the Tom Moore tragedy is a poignant reminder of two critical questions facing the fire service today: Are we willing to accept, and at what level, risks in training for the inherently dangerous occupation of firefighting? and What steps can (or will) we take to reduce the margin of training risk and yet provide firefighters the training they need, particularly when it comes to fireground survival training?
USFA REORGANIZATION
The reorganization of the United States Fire Administration (USFA) moved into high gear in 2000. This is the culmination of a process that began with concerns, from both internal and external sources, raised about the Federal Fire Programs’ effectiveness in serving the needs of the fire service and other USFA constituents. The subsequent report from a Blue Ribbon Panel of representatives of fire service organizations noted deficiencies in leadership, resource management, and communications and concluded that the organization was not performing as prescribed in the Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974. Former Acting Chief Operating Officer Richard Marinucci and recently appointed Chief Operating Officer Kenneth O. Burris, Jr. have developed the new USFA vision such that a team-based environment allows staff to work together cross-functionally to integrate activities and expedite program and course delivery.
The USFA has developed a 10-year operational objective to reduce loss of life due to fire-related hazards overall by 30 percent. Five-year objectives include:
- Reduce loss of life overall from fire-related hazards by 15 percent, which is arrived at by reducing the loss of life for the age groups of 14 years and younger, 65 years and older, and firefighters each by 25 percent. This is to be accomplished by forming partnerships with existing organizations/coalitions, resulting in new messengers to deliver accurate, innovative messages to target audiences; using appropriate media to deliver accurate, innovative messages to target audiences; maximizing effects of physical and behavior factors that reduce risks; and creating incentives for safe behavior and reduced risks.
- Led by or including the local fire service, 2,500 communities will have a multihazard risk reduction plan.
- Appropriate and timely response to emergent issues.
In addition, FEMA/USFA convened a panel of fire service and related professionals to revisit America Burning: The Report of the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control, issued in 1973, the landmark document that focused on the needs of the fire service and allied professions and resulted in the creation of the USFA and National Fire Academy. The new report, America at Risk, was expected to be finalized in late 2000.
