Search and Rescue In Single-Family Dwellings, Part 1

Search and Rescue In Single-Family Dwellings, Part 1

BY BILL GUSTIN

For a search to be effective, reasonably safe, and now comply with government regulations, it must be conducted with an ongoing risk/benefit analysis that answers four important questions:

What is the risk to civilian lives?

What are the realistic chances of saving a life?

What is the risk to firefighters performing search and rescue?

Do I have sufficient personnel on the scene (to rescue civilians and rescue firefighters if they should get into trouble)?

EFFECT OF “TWO IN/TWO OUT” RULE

Over the years, proactive incident commanders thinking ahead of the fire have maintained standby personnel resources to be used as needed; but only recently have we accepted the need for a fireground team dedicated exclusively to firefighter rescue. In fact, this special rapid intervention team (RIT) is now mandated by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). The rule requires that when firefighters operate inside a structure under fire conditions, there must be at least two and they must remain in direct visual or voice contact with each other. In addition, no fewer than two firefighters must stand by outside the structure ready to provide assistance or rescue the firefighters inside the building.

This regulation will have little effect on large career departments but can have a profound impact on departments outside the big cities where it is not uncommon for an engine company staffed with two or three firefighters to arrive at a working fire and to operate alone for several minutes (before help arrives). This regulation can force officers of rural and suburban fire departments to make a hard decision as to whether to attempt a rescue without sufficient standby personnel or possibly let someone die.

There is, however, an important exception to the regulation in cases where immediate action is necessary to save lives. What situation justifies a deviation from the rule? Clearly, an occupant who is seen or heard trapped inside a structure would warrant an immediate rescue attempt before sufficient standby personnel are on the scene. A parent who tells you that his child is trapped is another strong case, but what about the house with smoke showing at 0430 hours with a station wagon and minivan parked in the driveway and tricycles on the sidewalk? Does this justify a deviation from the rule? I strongly believe that it does.

DEVELOP A SEARCH PLAN BEFOREHAND

Regardless of regulations, there should be sufficient personnel available on the fireground for performing rescues of all types. That is our job. Our safety and the lives of civilians can depend on how well a search operation is planned, coordinated, and communicated. Firefighters searching a house or any building must develop a plan before they enter the structure. Part of this planning is to “standardize” the layouts of typical homes in your community–specifically, the location of bedrooms, points of access/egress, and stairway configurations.

Whenever possible, the search plan should divide a house into areas that can be rapidly searched by two or three firefighters–a search team. For example, the bedrooms could be one area, the kitchen and utility room another, and the dining and living rooms the third. In small houses, searches could be divided into two areas: the first floor and the second floor.

A plan assigning teams to search specific areas has advantages over having everyone attempting to search the entire house:

It allows for prioritization. If sufficient personnel are not immediately available to search all areas of the house simultaneously, those areas in which victims are most likely to be found are searched first. Bedrooms, regardless of the time of day, are a likely area in which to find victims and thus deserve a high priority for search.

Searching by area prevents redundancy when it can least be afforded.

It promotes accountability–the position and progress of the crews inside the building can be tracked.

Dividing a house tends to limit the areas to be searched to a size in which search team members, who can`t always operate in physical contact, can remain in voice contact–in compliance with OSHA regulations.

I`m well aware that some departments require their personnel to search in direct physical contact at all times. There are instances, which I will address later, when this is absolutely necessary. But remaining in physical contact can often be a waste of time and personnel and can actually impede a search of small rooms because firefighters get in each other`s way. Searching with a partner is essential, but members do not always have to remain in physical contact. Firefighters must, however, stay in visual or voice contact with their partners and must always be aware of each other`s location.

Search operations require close coordination with fire suppression, ventilation, and personnel conducting the search both inside and outside the house. Lack of coordination can lead to freelancing and result in firefighters becoming trapped by fire and occupants who are overlooked because of a duplication of efforts in one area while other areas are neglected.

VENTILATION

Coordination with ventilation is essential. Just because a small department doesn`t have a ladder company to devote to ventilation doesn`t make it any less important. Roof ventilation often is not necessary for fires in single-family homes. That`s good, because many departments today do not have the resources to get a company to the roof to perform timely vertical ventilation–that is, simultaneously with a fire attack and before fire has dangerously weakened the roof structure. Most single-family homes can be effectively ventilated horizontally through door and window openings and usually don`t require a large commitment of personnel. One firefighter with a pike pole breaking windows from outside the structure can greatly improve conditions for the firefighters and occupants inside the structure. However, some houses or conditions necessitate the use of vertical ventilation: These may include 212-story dwellings, those of balloon construction, and larger homes or other structures characterized by sizable open areas underserved by horizontal openings.

Ventilation at residential fires is performed for two important and distinct purposes: to facilitate fire attack and expedite search and rescue.

Venting for fire attack is necessary to advance and operate a hoseline where it will be most effective–inside a structure, where its stream can be applied to the fire at close range directly on burning fuels to stop the production of heat and fire gases. A properly positioned hoseline saves lives by confining a fire to its area of origin, protecting trapped occupants and the firefighters who search for them, and keeping fire from blocking vital exit pathways. But this is not possible without adequate ventilation. Fire, smoke, and expanding steam will take the path of least resistance. Provide an opening, and they will escape harmlessly to the outside. When no ventilation opening is provided, smoke and heat will bank down to the floor. Hot, expanding steam can flow in only one direction–right back at the hoseline crew–scalding, ruining their visibility, and slowing their advance. Venting for fire must be performed strategically, as close to the fire as possible and opposite the direction of the advancing handline. Timing is critical. Ventilate too early, before the hoseline is ready to advance, and the fire will intensify from an inrush of oxygen. Vent too late, and the hoseline crew will take a beating.

Venting for search and rescue can make the difference between life and death for occupants trapped in their burning home. Remember, it`s the smoke that kills most fire victims and prevents us from finding them. Venting for search and rescue improves conditions for both firefighters and trapped occupants: It increases visibility, reduces the volume of heat, and decreases the concentration of toxic gases. Additionally, firefighters who vent windows as they search can orient themselves by taking a look outside and seeing where they are in relation to the exterior of the structure, and they are never far from an emergency means of escape.

Venting for search and rescue is a calculated risk. Unlike venting for fire, venting for search is sometimes necessary before a hoseline is in position to attack a fire and is often performed in areas remote from its range of protection. It, therefore, has the potential to intensify and spread a fire. Firefighters venting for search and rescue must carefully consider the fire`s location, stage, and extent. Further, they must evaluate the risk that ventilation will intensify the fire. Firefighters venting as they search can reduce the risk of spreading the fire by closing doors between the fire and the area in which they are searching. The risks of ventilating diminish dramatically with fire control.

Throughout this series of articles, I will repeatedly stress how important it is for the first-arriving engine company to rapidly stretch a hoseline and attack the fire. Achieving fire control allows searching firefighters to vent more thoroughly and aggressively, with less fear of the fire`s spreading or intensifying.

When ventilating for search and fire attack, always pay careful attention to the wind`s direction and velocity. Ideally, begin ventilation on the leeward side of a structure, but we know that this is not always possible. A firefighter who breaks a window in the face of a strong wind can cause a fire to blowtorch through a building and severely burn firefighters operating inside.

Pay even stricter attention to conditions when sliding glass doors are present. Sliding glass doors, because of their size, can provide a highly efficient ventilation opening. But breaking a sliding glass door prematurely or into the wind can drive firefighters out of a structure and make them fully appreciate the value of their protective clothing.

A house filled with dense smoke and toxic gases must be rapidly and thoroughly ventilated if its occupants are to survive. If the sound of glass breaking is disturbing to you because you`re worried about damage, then your priorities are in the wrong order. When smoke is down to the floor and you can`t see your hand in front of your face, the sound of breaking glass can be extremely comforting; it`s the sound of your brothers improving conditions, leading you to the fire and providing you with an alternate means of escape. Smoke kills. If breaking windows is what it takes to get the smoke out, BREAK THE GLASS. Then, tear out the screens. Lives are at stake here. The damage is completely justified.

POSITIVE PRESSURE VENTILATION

It is critical to coordinate the use of positive pressure ventilation (PPV) with search and rescue. PPV is a very powerful and effective tool. As with any powerful tool, the consequences of misusing it can be severe. PPV can make conditions better for firefighters, pushing smoke and heat away as they advance toward the fire, but it can also make conditions much worse for any occupants trapped between the fire and the exhaust opening. This can happen when a blower is placed at the front door and someone is trapped by burglar bars at a back bedroom window. Do not implement PPV without knowing the fire`s location, occupants` location, and the effect that PPV will have on the occupants–information that is often unknown until after fire knockdown and a primary search are completed.

COMMUNICATIONS

A search operation requires good communications between each search team member, personnel performing ventilation, and companies operating hoselines. In suburban areas, where the first-arriving engine company may have to operate alone for several minutes, how and where later-arriving companies are deployed often depend largely on what the first company on the scene accomplishes and the report transmitted by the first-arriving company officer. That report must communicate three important facts:

the situation found by the first-arriving company,

the action being taken, and

what still needs to be done.

Example

“Engine 1 to Fire Alarm: We`ve located the fire in a bedroom in the rear of a one-story frame house.” SITUATION FOUND

“We`ve knocked down the fire and are beginning a primary search of the bedrooms.” ACTION TAKEN

“We need the rest of the house searched. Examine the attic for extension and begin positive pressure ventilation.” WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE

Or

“We`ve located the fire in the kitchen of a small two-story brick house. We`re knocking down the fire and searching the first floor. When they arrive, send Engine 2`s crew to the second floor to search the bedrooms and check for extension.”

Good communications during a search operation are never more critical than when firefighters must pass or go above a fire. Searching beyond the protection of a hoseline before a fire is under control places personnel at great risk and should only be attempted when there is a high probability that occupants are trapped and can be saved.1 When the risk is justified, firefighters operating hoselines must be informed of the search team`s dangerous position and understand that they must notify the incident commander and the search team if they lose water or are not certain that they can bring the fire under control for any reason.

SIZE-UP

A size-up prior to engaging in search operations is vitally important because no single search plan will work for every fire, every house, or every fire department. How to search a house and where to search in it depend on many factors that are most accurately observed by taking a quick walk around the structure:

The size and depth of the house can be deceiving when observed from the street.

The presence of additions is an extremely important observation in my first-response district, where immigrant families often build makeshift additions that are larger than the original house. Many are separate occupancies that cannot be reached from the front door.

Similarly, more than one electric meter or mailbox indicates a house that has been divided into separate living units.

Doors and windows can serve as alternate points of entry or emergency means of egress; note their locations.

A window air-conditioner in a garage or attic is a clue that it has been converted into a bedroom and thus warrants a higher priority for search.

The location of the fire, which is often not apparent from the street. Heavy fire in possession of one end of a house is a strong indication that occupants in the fire area are not savable and that searchers should concentrate their efforts on the portion that is not burning. A fire on the first floor is likely to trap occupants on the second floor. Similarly, a fire in the basement can render all floors untenable and require a search of all levels. Examine the windows. Hot, cracked glass stained with soot can indicate the location of the fire and where to vent for the advancing hoseline.

Fire conditions–the fire`s stage and extent. These are critical considerations for a company operating without the protection of a hoseline or an understaffed company that must choose between extending a search or fighting the fire.

Security bars can trap occupants and firefighters.

A difference of elevation at the rear of the house. The first floor observed from the front of a house built on the side of a hill can actually be the second floor.

The presence of trapped occupants or victims who already have exited (jumped). They can easily be overlooked if no one takes the time to view all sides of a house.

RESOURCES

Resources are important considerations of size-up and can affect significantly how a search will be conducted. Are there sufficient personnel to control the fire and extend a search? What if you don`t have enough personnel? Do you commit your resources to search or fight the fire? I`ve heard fire officers say with conviction that if they were to arrive at a fire with people trapped they would forget about fighting the fire and devote all their personnel to search and rescue. “Rescue takes priority over fire control,” they reason. That sounds good, but keep in mind that the fire isn`t going to take a “time out” while you search. Fire is a chemical reaction; it does not grow in even increments of time. Rather, fire grows in geometric proportions, especially after a building is opened and receives additional oxygen. With very few exceptions, the most effective lifesaving action a first-arriving engine company can take is to rapidly stretch a hoseline and attack the fire. This will greatly improve conditions for any trapped occupants and the firefighters who search for them.

What are your personnel`s capabilities? How aggressively firefighters search and the level of risk at which they operate depend on their training, experience, strength, stamina, willingness, and desire. Don`t expect a new firefighter to operate like a veteran. As much as I don`t advocate firefighters always staying in physical contact with a partner, there are times when it is absolutely essential. Don`t ever let go of a new, inexperienced firefighter in adverse conditions. He should always remain “glued” to his company officer.

LOOKING FOR TRAPPED CIVILIANS

Following are indications that occupants are trapped and some clues that can indicate their locations.

Visual. Obviously, seeing a trapped victim is your best indication. But the obvious can be overlooked if no one does a walk-around to view all sides of the house. Seeing cars parked in the driveway isn`t a guarantee that occupants are home, but it is a strong indication and, as such, usually warrants an aggressive search.

Verbal. A family member who frantically tells you that a child is trapped and points out the bedroom window provides a clear indication of where to search. Information from neighbors is also very useful. Bystanders can also provide valuable information, but it should be heeded with cautious skepticism, especially if the group is gathered at 3 a.m. and has been drinking alcoholic beverages.

Time. Most fire fatalities in residences occur between the hours of 11 p.m. and 6 a.m. A substantial number of these victims succumb to smoke and fire gases where they are sleeping or in unsuccessful attempts to escape. They become trapped because of the locations of their bedrooms, typically at the end of a dead-end hallway (blocked by fire) or at the top of an open stairway (which becomes a chimney for a fire burning on a lower floor).

A fire in the early morning hours strongly indicates that bedrooms should be searched as soon as possible. However, bedrooms should be a high priority for search at any time of the day. A fire that begins outside the sleeping areas, such as the kitchen, can quickly render the hallway or stairway impassable and trap occupants in the bedrooms. When fire prevents or delays search teams from rapidly reaching the bedrooms from the interior, they should consider an alternate route–bypass the interior and access the bedrooms directly from the windows.

Human behavior. Being creatures of habit, most adults will attempt to escape from fire by the means they normally use to exit their home–stairways, hallways, and doorways. Unfortunately, some of these occupants become fire victims when their normal means of egress is blocked by fire, smoke, burglar gates, and double deadbolt locks.

Windows become a secondary means of exit but can trap occupants behind bars or casement or awning window frames. Exit routes, doorways, hallways, and stairways, therefore, should be a high priority for search. The area directly below windows should also be probed for victims. In my district, we have found a significant number of victims directly behind the front or back door, where they succumbed to fire gases before they could unlock as many as four double deadbolts.

Expect irrational behavior. Civilians occasionally will take refuge in the shower or crawl into a closet and hide beneath a pile of clothes. Many fire victims get themselves into their predicament because they are impaired by drugs or alcohol. My company has responded to several fires that were started by someone who returned home from a long night of drinking and put some food on the stove to heat but then forgot about it, passed out, or went to sleep. Children behave differently than adults and tend to hide from fire. Check closets and underneath beds for young occupants.

Endnote

1. “Searching Without a Line: What Would You Do?” Mike Lombardo, Fire Engineering, May 1998, 85-86.

To be effective, reasonably safe, and now comply with government regulations, plan a search in accordance with a size-up and an ongoing risk-benefit analysis that weighs the risk to firefighters against the realistic chances of saving a life. (Photo by George Izquierdo.)

Complying with OSHA`s “two in/two out” rule can be extremely difficult for small, understaffed departments. (Photo by John Mielcarek, 911 Pictures.)

When possible, divide a house into areas that a team of two or three firefighters can search rapidly. Teams must plan their search before entering the structure. (Photo by Paul Blake.)

Search operations must be coordinated with ventilation. The fact that a small department doesn`t have a ladder company to devote to ventilation doesn`t make it any less important. Fortunately, roof ventilation is not usually necessary for fires in single-family homes because many departments do not have the resources to perform timely vertical ventilation simultaneously with fire attack and before fire has dangerously weakened the roof structure.

A hoseline can save lives by confining a fire and protecting trapped occupants, but not without adequate ventilation. Fire, smoke, and steam, which will take the path of least resistance, will escape to the outside if an opening to the outside is provided. Venting for fire attack must be performed as close to the fire as possible and in the direction opposite that of the advancing hoseline. (Photos by John Mielcarek, 911 Pictures.)

Venting for search and rescue. The firefighter is venting for interior search teams. Venting for search and rescue is often performed in areas remote from a hoseline and can intensify and spread a fire. Firefighters must carefully consider the fire`s location, stage, and extent and the chances of its spreading. (Photo by Ray Bell.)

An effective search operation requires good communications between each search team member, personnel performing ventilation, and companies operating hoselines. (Photo by Paul Blake.)

Sliding glass doors provide a highly efficient opening for ventilation or fire attack. However, breaking a sliding glass door prematurely or in the face of a strong wind can blowtorch a fire through a structure and drive firefighters out of the building. (Photo by John Mielcarek, 911 Pictures.)

Examine the windows during a walk-around. Here, a high-smoke, low-heat fire involving foam rubber mattresses could not be located until the outside vent team detected a hot window and vented it for the advancing engine company. (Photos by author.)

Viewing only the front of a building can be deceiving and dangerous. This structure is built on the side of a hill, making the first floor, as observed from the front, actually the second floor. (How does the stream played into the window affect primary search?) (Photo by John Mielcarek, 911 Pictures.)

Venting for fire attack must be performed strategically, as close to the fire as possible and opposite the direction of the advancing hoseline. (Photo by John Mielcarek, 911 pictures.)

BILL GUSTIN is a captain with the Metro-Dade County (FL) Fire Department and lead instructor in his department?s officer training program. He began his 25-year fire service career in the Chicago area and teaches fire training programs in Florida and other states. He is a marine firefighting instructor and has taught fire tactics to ship crews and firefighters in the Caribbean countries. He also teaches forcible entry tactics to fire departments and SWAT teams of local and federal law enforcement agencies. He is an editorial advisory board member of Fire Engineering.