By Robert Shelton
An old-school fire lieutenant who worked in a heavily industrialized part of the city was asked what he would do if a hazmat run occurred at one of the factories in his first-due area. He said he would wait for the hazmat team to arrive. I asked what he would do if a viable victim needed help. He said he would still wait for the hazmat team instead of effecting a rescue. That answer violates everything we stand for as firefighters, and I can only assume that his answer was based on a lack of knowledge of the basics of hazardous materials response.
Whenever I have asked firefighters whether they would rather deal with a hazardous chemical or a radiation incident, the vast majority always answered, “A hazardous chemical.” Why? Generally, the chemicals are more dangerous than the radiation sources we may encounter on the street and are more abundant and pose a greater chance of injury or death. Therefore, the reason firefighters answer this way has to be that they lack knowledge on this topic. Every firefighter knows that a lack of knowledge can be fatal; hence, we need to learn as much as possible to be safe when dealing with the transportation or malicious use of a radiation source.
Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) are our reality, and fire departments all over the country must train for them just as we do for fire, emergency medical services (EMS), hazardous materials, technical rescue, and other responses. Recently, I saw this statement on Facebook: “You can’t train too much for a job that can kill you.” So it is with hazardous materials whether they are chemicals, WMD, or radioactive sources. The difference is that we are more likely to be hurt or killed by the chemical than the radiation.
Following is some information that can help you to be street smart when dealing with radioactive responses in the transportation setting. Although the safety principles and practices apply to all incidents, things do change, and our way of going to work must adapt to that specific type of incident when radiation is used as a WMD.
Note: I am not an expert on radiation; however, I have studied the subject and worked with people in the radiation field who have given me the benefit of their experience to better recognize what we are up against. I was confused about radiation and how to respond to these calls, but I have learned the principles necessary for a safe response, and I want to help make radiation responses less of a mystery so we all can go to work with the knowledge to carry out our mandate to protect the public.
Background Radiation
Everyone is exposed to some amount of background radiation; according to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), on average an American receives a background radiation dose of about 0.62 rem (Roentgen Equivalent Man/Mammal) each year. A rem is based on the tissue damage caused by the ionizing radiation a mammal may have been exposed to or may have absorbed. Half of this dose comes from natural background radiation from radon in the air; smaller amounts come from cosmic rays and the earth itself, including some of the foods we eat.
According to the National Council of Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP), the largest percentage of exposure comes from naturally occurring sources like radon and thoron. Radon is a natural product of the environment and the principal natural background radiation exposure source in the United States. Thoron is an isotope of radon and the remaining product of decayed thorium. Keep in mind that an isotope is an atom with the same number of protons but differing numbers of neutrons; therefore, isotopes are different forms of a single element.
The Basics
What is radiation? On an atomic level, negatively charged electrons are orbiting the nucleus and positively charged protons and neutrally charged neutrons are close to the nucleus. That’s basic chemistry and physics. If there are too many or too few neutrons in the nucleus compared to the number of protons in the nucleus, the atom is unstable and gives off energy (radiation) in an attempt to become stable—in other words, radiation is the energy given off by a radioactive material.
When you hear the terms “nonionizing” vs. “ionizing” radiation, think of energy. Nonionizing radiation does not carry enough energy to move electrons from molecules. Examples of nonionizing radiation include ultraviolet, visible light, radio frequencies, microwaves, and infrared, things we are exposed to daily. On the other hand, ionizing radiation has more energy to move those same electrons, and that is where things can become problematic for responders and the public.
Types of Radiation
There are four basic types of ionizing radiation with which we should be familiar. All are different in the energy they possess, how they affect us, and how we can protect ourselves from them.
- Alpha (α). It is considered a “particle” because of its mass and weight; it expends energy quickly and thereby can travel only a very short distance, a few inches or so. Also, because of its lack of energy, its penetrating power is negligible. Intact skin; paper; and, obviously, personal protective equipment (PPE) can protect responders from it externally. However, when Alpha is inhaled or ingested, it can have a detrimental effect on the body’s cells and organs. The primary means of protection is self-contained breathing apparatus as a part of your full PPE. At a working fire, we would never dream of making entry without our breathing air; likewise, when dealing with radiation, we should use all of our PPE with SCBA.
- Beta (β). It has smaller, lighter particles that possess more energy and can travel several feet. Thick cardboard; plastic; aluminum; and, again, full PPE with SCBA will shield against its penetrating ability. Although Beta can penetrate skin only a fraction of an inch, it can travel several feet in air with higher levels of Beta radiation. It can damage skin and eyes, but it will cause less harm to cells or organs internally because it releases energy over a larger area.
- Gamma (γ). This is the type of ionizing radiation with which people are most familiar because it gives superheroes, like the Incredible Hulk, their powers. Unlike Alpha and Beta, Gamma is a ray, electromagnetic radiation in waves of energy with no mass and no electrical charge. It can travel long distances and necessitates more than PPE and SCBA as protection. Lead, steel, and concrete are common mediums of protection against this powerful source of radiation that can significantly damage living cells and tissue.
- Neutron. This is the only type that can make other objects radioactive. It can penetrate other materials and can travel great distances in air. Very thick hydrogen-containing materials (such as concrete and water) are necessary to block neutrons. Fortunately for first responders, neutron radiation primarily occurs inside a nuclear reactor. Figure 1 illustrates the penetrating power of radiation sources and the types of protection against them.
Contamination vs. Exposure
How do we become contaminated by radiation? If your organization provides EMS, your emergency medical technicians and medics understand that there is a difference between contamination and exposure. Simply put, contamination is radiation where you do not want it. When a source of radiation gets on or in a person, that person becomes contaminated. If you are in the vicinity of a source and don’t get any on you, you are at risk of exposure with the risk ending when you are no longer in the area of the material. You can be exposed and not be contaminated; but if you are contaminated, you will continue to be exposed until the material is removed by means of decontamination.
Contamination may be external or internal, and it is difficult, if not impossible, to remove internal contamination. Internal contamination will affect tissue, cells, and organs and can cause changes in DNA. Decontamination can remove external contamination, depending on the physical state of the radioactive material whether a solid or a liquid.
Responders may encounter Alpha, Beta, and Gamma forms of radiation in transportation incidents. Neutrons should not pose a threat to us in a transportation setting because they are used and generated primarily inside a nuclear reactor, as mentioned previously. This article will focus on those hazards we are most likely to encounter in the course of our work.
Protection and Protective Actions
Protecting first responders is our number-one priority. To this end, two principles work in concert with each other—the radiation model and the acronym ALARA. The radiation model and its concepts apply to any event we respond to that could endanger us. The principles of protection are time, distance, and shielding.
Time
The less time spent in the confines of a radioactive material, the less exposure—and, thus, the less chance of contamination by the materials. If personnel can be rotated regularly, the exposure of each individual would be less as opposed to one or two people receiving a large, possibly detrimental dose. At fires, we rotate crews regularly, especially in the warmer or colder climates, to minimize exposure to the elements and complications from that exposure; the same principle applies.
Distance
Of course, the farther away we are, the safer we will be. On a fully involved structure fire with no chance of survivability for victims, going defensive with elevated master streams, deck guns, and so on maximizes distance, thereby increasing the safety factor and protecting us from the heat generated by the fire. Also related to distance is the inverse square law, which states that if you double your distance from the radiation source, you cut the dose by one quarter. Therefore, if you are dealing with a rad source of 100 millirem/per hour (mR/hr) at one foot, it would be 25 mR/hr at two feet, 6.25 mR/hr at four feet, and so on.
Shielding
Whatever material is available that can block or absorb the effects of the radiation, be it concrete, lead, dirt, the fire apparatus, or PPE, make sure it is between you and the source. In EMS, your gloves, masks, garments, and the like act as shielding from airborne and bloodborne pathogens; again, the principle has already been established for us.
ALARA
ALARA is an acronym that stands for “as low as reasonably achievable,” making every reasonable effort to maintain exposures as far below the dose limits as practical, taking into consideration circumstances such as life safety of responders and victims. Time, distance, and shielding in conjunction with ALARA should be used to protect ourselves on all of our runs; radiation runs are no different. We need to use these principles for radiation because in the United States, approximately three million packages of radioactive materials are shipped each year either by highway, rail, air, or water, according to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC).
Since radioactive materials are shipped in such large quantities and by all modes of transportation, we need to know how they are labeled and packaged for our protection and that of the public. We most likely will encounter rad sources through transportation; and along with the protection principles, there should be some sort of administrative controls that come on the form of shipping information such as placards, labels, and markings.
Placards and Labels for Radioactive Materials
We are all familiar with the trefoil (radiation propeller) and class 7 Department of Transportation (DOT) placards. The placards designate three classes of radiation materials: I, II, and III. These classes are based on how much external contact radiation is on the package; the greater the number, the higher the surface contact radiation level.
- White-I is 0.5 mR/hr or less.
- Yellow-II is greater than 0.5 mR/hr up to 50 mR/hr.
- Yellow-III is greater than 50 mR/hr up to a maximum of 200 mR/hr.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) designed a symbol to provide a clearer warning for people not familiar with the traditional symbol. In addition to a black trefoil with waves of radiation streaming from it, the ISO/IAEA radiation warning symbol features a black skull-and-crossbones and a symbol of a man running toward an arrow, away from the radiation (photo 1). This symbol is meant to provide a final warning and is placed only on devices that house radiation sources such as food irradiation and cancer therapy equipment to clearly communicate that dismantling the device presents the risk of death or serious injury. A video from 1987 on an incident that occurred in Goiania, Brazil, relating directly to this signage and how some of the devastating effects may have been avoided is circulating on the Internet; YouTube has a three-minute synopsis of what happened at www.youtube.com/watch?v=dv-87QKy37M.
Other labeling protections for radiation packaging are acronyms such as LSA and SCO. Low specific activity (LSA) materials have limited amounts of radioactivity in relation to the quantity of material being shipped. Radioactive waste and contaminated earth are two examples of LSA. Surface-contaminated objects (SCO) have radioactive material on a surface, but the material is not necessarily radioactive; the product by definition is contaminated (see how things are all related in the world of radiation?). Items like contaminated clothing fall under SCO. This does not cover all of the radioactive packaging labels, but it gives us a starting point for determining what we may be exposed to. Radiation incidents do occur, but they are almost nonexistent in transportation because of the type of packaging used to ship and transport rad sources.
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| (1) The International Atomic Energy Agency and the International Organization for Standardization radiation symbol. |
Radioactive Packaging
Radioactive shipping packages are based on the quantity, the level of radioactivity, and whether the item is a solid or a liquid. In the United States, radioactive packages are one of four types:
- Excepted Packaging. An example of excepted packaging would be any radioactive material in limited quantities that has very little hazard risk if released. An example would be smoke detectors that come in a standard cardboard box when shipped or sold. Excepted means that the material doesn’t have to have any specific labeling and shipping papers but requires the four-digit UN number as found in the Emergency Response Guidebook. Excepted packages also have no requirement for special testing of the packaging material to assess for failure potential.
- Industrial Packaging. LSA/SCO shipments of radioactive waste are under specific DOT rules for packaging with the requirements outlined in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) (49 CFR 173. 410-412). This type of packaging doesn’t allow any measurable or identifiable release into the environment during transport and handling.
- Type A Packaging. When it comes to Type A packaging, the concentrations of rad materials are significantly higher. Type A packaging materials are constructed of steel, fiberboard, and wood, but they also have an inner containment of materials composed of metal, plastic, or other materials and then are packed in rubber, polyethylene, or vermiculite. There are testing requirements outlined in the CFR to ensure integrity and shielding of these materials. For first responders, the most common occurrence may be from a car accident where a vehicle is carrying radiopharmaceuticals between medical facilities or labs.
- Type B Packaging. This is designed to carry the highest levels of radioactivity in transport, such as spent nuclear fuel and highly radioactive materials like cobalt and high-level radioactive waste. Type B packaging undergoes extremely stringent testing based on the worst-case scenario with the release of materials that would endanger life. A shipping container may weigh several tons but contain smaller quantities of material. The container or cask must be that robust because of the radioactive material within. Responders should be able to quickly recognize the shipping containers should they respond to an incident involving radiation sources.
Response to the Incident
You arrive on the scene and have identified the labels/placards used in shipping. You determined from the shipping container approximately how radioactive or dangerous the material is. Just as in any hazardous materials incident, you consult the ERG and establish hot, warm, and cold zones as part of incident control and protective actions. A good policy is to use an initial isolation distance of 75 feet in all directions and stay upwind and uphill from the event, per the ERG. If you have the four-digit UN number or the name of the material, consult the Yellow or Blue sections of the book, respectively. But, of particular importance are the Orange guide pages for protective actions; guide numbers 161-165 are for radioactive materials, and guide number 166 is specific to Radioactive Corrosive materials.
It is important to remember that radiation may not be the only hazard associated with a particular material. There are radioactive materials that are corrosive or water-sensitive as well as being a radioactive source.
Radiation is measured in a special way; specific terminology and instrumentation are used. We will touch on only what we need to know to protect us initially on the street to stay safe until more qualified personnel arrive on scene. If your organization has a radiation standard operating procedure (SOP), you may have emergency exposure guidelines at your disposal and should adhere to your jurisdiction’s policy. If a radiation SOP is not in place, this may be a good time to have a discussion about what can be done to further protect you from the threats posed by the use of radiation at a transportation accident or if used as a WMD.
Depending on the agency, the maximum emergency dose limits for lifesaving by first responders can vary from 25 rem [Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)] up to 100 rem (IAEA). For the sake of perspective, the annual average dose of radiation Americans are exposed to is 0.62 rem, which equals 620 millirem. One important number is 25 rem, which is the acceptable dose for lifesaving for volunteers who fully understand the health implications or 10 rem for the protection of large populations. The results are possibly some short-term effects such as detectable blood changes at 5 rem or a definite blood change at 25 rem, but again with no serious injury. The EPA guideline for maximum dose to emergency workers volunteering for lifesaving work is 75 rem with the possibility of Acute Radiation Sickness (ARS) within a few hours. Hallmarks of ARS at this dose are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fatigue, and reduction in resistance to infection.
Common Monitoring Devices
You don’t need to be a radiation or a hazardous materials specialist to use some of the monitoring devices available. Many departments have monitoring devices on their rigs, in their EMS bags, or in the form of personal devices they wear on the work uniform. A personal radiation detector (PRD) is a small pocket-sized device that sounds an alert in the presence of radiation. In general, it alerts you to the presence of a radioactive material, giving you a point of reference for protective clothing and establishing control zones. However, they do not identify the source, the dose rate, or how much of an exposure was given over a certain period of time.
Dosimeters are small pager-like devices that measure personal radiation doses. The dosimeter tells you the total amount of rad (radiation absorbed dose) you received. There are different types of dosimeters; each has pros and cons. Your agency should investigate which type would best fit your needs or if you need one at all. Numerous brands of monitoring devices are on the market.
Electronic Resources
We live in the age of smartphones and tablets that have numerous applications to assist us during a radiological event. A few (there are many more) I have come across and used are WISER (Wireless Information System for Emergency Responders) by the U.S. National Laboratory of Medicine; REMM (Radiation Emergency Management) by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; and RAD Responder, a collaboration of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Department of Energy/National Nuclear Security Administration, and the EPA. All are useful when responding to hazardous materials incidents involving radioactive materials.
Educational Opportunities
There are also classes you can attend for free; room, board, and travel are completely paid by the federal government. The classes are offered by the following organizations: Counterterrorism Operations Support Center for Radiological/Nuclear Training in Las Vegas, Nevada; Security and Emergency Response Training Center in Pueblo, Colorado; and Centers for Domestic Preparedness in Anniston, Alabama. Each has excellent classes in radiation and WMD with top-notch instructors and real-world hands-on practical scenarios using live radiation sources. I attended all of them more than once. Even though I had to use my personal time from my job, it was well worth it.
Wrapping Up the Mystery
A mystery sometimes cannot be solved regardless of the resources at your disposal. Radiation is not a mystery at all, and we have the tools and resources to make it completely understandable. Learning about radiation takes a willingness to learn the basics, put forth some effort, and maybe do some studying to grasp what you need to know to be safe.
Hopefully, this article will spur some discussion in departments where training on or an understanding of radiation response is lacking. Hazardous materials, including radiological materials, are all around us and are shipped on a daily basis. Chemicals pose the greater threat of the two, but make no mistake about it: Mishandling a rad will kill you. But, if we know what we need to know, we can make a safe response.
ROBERT SHELTON is a 25-year veteran of the fire service serving in various capacities including firefighter, hazmat specialist, rescue technician, and paramedic for a career fire department in southwest Ohio. He is the president of and lead instructor for Life-Line Solutions Safety Training and Consulting and a former FDIC classroom instructor on education methodology and hazmat response.
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