By Kyle Smith
Standpipe operations do not occur regularly for many departments. Few would argue that they are not low-frequency / high-risk events. That’s why many departments frequently on standpipe procedures. But, is that good enough? It is one thing to have a well-thought-out high-rise procedure and another to have a trained group of firefighters who have realistic expectations for standpipe operations. These expectations should be based on experience (whether first person or vicarious) and knowledge gained through testing and preincident analysis. Let’s look at some of the steps we can take before the fire that will give us the best chance for a positive outcome.
Flow Rates
Many topics generate great debate around the firehouse kitchen table. One is line selection for standpipe operations. The most common debate involves the 2½- vs. the 1¾-inch line. There is also the discussion surrounding the nozzle variable: fog, solid, break-apart, automatic, low pressure, and so on. The increase in the use of the 2-inch hose has muddied the waters even more. Let’s look at some of the pros and cons of each and develop a strategy for using them.
Hose Size
The standpipe system was designed to be used with 2½-inch hose. A primary advantage of this size line is that it will flow the rated capacity of the outlet as designed by the fire protection engineer. This allows the first line to flow at least 250 gallons per minute (gpm) from any outlet on the system. The flow from 2-inch hose is comparable but lower. When you change to 1¾-inch hos, the flow can drop significantly. It all depends on the friction loss coefficient of your particular hose. Some will argue that the 1¾-inch line takes less staffing to deploy. I would argue that no matter what the size of the hose is, it still necessitates that one firefighter move the line around a corner. The number of firefighters needed to advance the line does not necessarily go down because the line is smaller. The 1¾-inch line is more maneuverable than the 2½-inch, but at the significant cost of gpm.
The nozzle is the second component of the flow rate equation. The standpipe was designed to be used with a 11/8-inch tip solid bore nozzle requiring 50 pounds per square inch (psi) nozzle pressure. This nozzle will give you not only the reach and penetration of a solid stream but also will allow debris to pass and not clog the nozzle. The fog nozzle can be used in a straight stream, but it is still made up of smaller droplets, which will be converted to steam at the cost of penetration. Debris can easily clog a fog nozzle, necessitating that it be shut down and removed to clear. The danger of the automatic fog nozzle is that it will produce a good looking stream, even at reduced flows.
The time to find out what your standpipe hose package will deliver is before the fire. The only way to know for sure is to flow test your setup. Be sure to consider not only the buildings in your jurisdiction but also those in the districts for which you have mutual-aid agreements. If you have pressure reducing valves (PRVs) in your jurisdiction, select a hose/nozzle setup that will function at the reduced pressures. PRVs prevent you from using your fire apparatus to increase the pressure and use smaller-diameter hoselines. Outlets are only required to provide 65 or 100 psi while flowing 250 gpm, depending on the age of the building. Choosing a hose/nozzle setup that requires more than that is asking for problems.
Hoseline Length
Most standpipe hose packs I have seen are either 150 feet or 200 feet in length. This is adequate to reach the seat of the fire in most situations. There are, however, a few variables to consider when deciding what length of hose to carry. The first thing you must evaluate are the buildings in your jurisdiction. Look at the stairwell layouts. Are the outlets on each floor or on the half-landings? Do you have a leader of 2½ inches or 3 inches that connects to the outlet? Does the building have more than two stairwells? If a building has two stairwells, for example, one will be for fire attack and the other for evacuation. If the fire attack stairwell is not closer to the fire, the hoseline may not be long enough. Success will depend on having enough hose staged two floors below and the selection of the proper stairway. The backup line will need to be longer as well, since it may need to be attached two floors below the fire. What if you need a third line? It will have to come from a second standpipe, also requiring additional hose.
One of the solutions is to use a gated wye attached to the standpipe outlet. What are we asking this outlet to do? Keep in mind that it is designed to flow 250 gpm at 65 or 100 psi. That means that, best-case scenario, we are flowing 125 gpm through each line whether it is 1¾ inch or 2 inch. A standard outlet can flow more than 250 gpm, but is it designed to? Should we really be surprised when that setup doesn’t give us effective fire streams? The numbers do not add up.
Larger buildings may have additional standpipe outlets on each floor, not in a stairwell, to meet the spacing requirements in the code. That looks great on paper, but what is the reality of your using that outlet? There have been close calls and line-of-duty deaths caused by firefighters using outlets on the fire floor, not to mention the challenge of making the connections in an immediately dangerous to life or health environment. When deciding on an initial hose pack length, look at the buildings in your jurisdiction. Take a 200-foot rope with you and play it out from the outlet on the floor below and see what you can get to. Use this information to decide what will work best. It doesn’t have to work on every building, but have a plan for adding hose. Don’t just carry up 200 feet of hose; be ready to extend the line. Each crew going up should carry hose sections until there is an adequate cache of hose staged upstairs.
Visibility/Conditions
Another operational consideration is that of the expected conditions in the stairwells. Experience and common sense both tell us that when climbing the stairs at a working fire, occupants will be leaving the building in the same stairwell. One way to simulate this is to coordinate with a local building and climb the stairs in full gear with equipment during a fire drill. This will enable you to evaluate your hose pack with evacuating occupants. Another aspect of the conditions in the stairwell is visibility. When conducting standpipe training, do you ever add the challenge of limited visibility? Ideally, by using the outlet on the floor below the fire floor, the visibility will be good. However, history has taught us that that may not always be the case. Reverse stack effect can easily cause the visibility in the stairwell to become obscured. At this point, the officer has some decisions to make: When does the crew need to go on air? What standpipe outlet should you use? Is the fire lower in the building than you think? If not, and you choose to hook up on a floor more than one below the fire floor, how much hose do you need? These are all discussions that need to occur before the day of the fire. These are scenarios that should be trained on ahead of time.
Staffing
The number of firefighters needed to control and extinguish a fire in a standpipe-equipped building will vary depending on several factors. The size of the building and occupancy are just a couple. The thing to consider is what will it take for you and your department to put an effective firefighting force together. A part of the preparation for a high-rise / standpipe fire is to look at several of the buildings in your jurisdiction and “burn” it in the firehouse kitchen. “Take it to the board,” as we would say. Start making a list of the assignments needed and fill them with the crews on duty that day. Keep in mind that engine crews should be joined to be effective in moving a line out of a stairwell. Be realistic about the numbers and staffing levels. Use the people on duty that day, not just an ideal number. Have a plan for getting the needed number of firefighters and chief officers on the scene. That might include mutual aid or calling in extra personnel from off duty. Just have a plan.
Preplan Red Flags
Finally, look at some of the red flags that should come up during the preincident planning phase with standpipe-equipped buildings. For high-rise buildings, the prefire plan should include whether or not the building has a 13th floor. Some do; some don’t, but we should know ahead of time. We should make note of any PRVs, what floors have them, what type they are, and if they can be adjusted on the fireground. Another feature that can be found is a master PRV in the pump room. It may be on an individual riser or an entire system (photo 1- 2). They must be identified and listed on prefire plans–not only what is downstream of them but also possible troubleshooting options. Use the preincident plan to apply Murphy’s Law. Figure out what could break, which is anything; come up with a plan on how to deal with the failure.
During the preplanning process is also the time to identify the age of the building and what standard was used in the design of the standpipe system. If it was designed using the 1990 or earlier edition of National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 14, the outlets will have an operating pressure of 65 psi. Buildings designed after that will have a minimum operating pressure of 100 psi at each outlet. This is valuable information that can assist in the troubleshooting process if things are not going according to plan.
(1) A typical outlet PRV. (Photos by author.)
(2) A system PRV.
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There are several aspects of standpipe operations that need be discussed and trained on ahead of time. We have briefly discussed high-rise flow rates from hose/nozzle combinations, hoseline lengths, visibility concerns, staffing demands, and prefire plans. The challenge is keeping our training realistic. Don’t just go through the motions. Take the time to go below the surface and really look at the challenges that your department will face if “that” building burns.
BIO
Kyle Smith is a captain with Cobb County (GA) Fire, assigned to Truck Company 8. He has been in the fire service for 21 years and worked in career and volunteer fire departments. He is also a consultant for a fire protection engineering firm specializing in big box retail and represents the fire service on the technical committee responsible for NFPA 14.
