HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WILDLAND AND FIRES
Photos by R. Becker.
Wildland fires stress the body more than any other type of fire control operation. Years ago, it was believed that only rural areas were threatened by wildland fires. Conditions have changed, and today we know the problem as the urban interface, where development moves around land-mass handicaps, leaving behind a significant fire control problem. One thing, however, has not changed: It is hard, dirty work to win this type of fire battle. Your safety and success depend to a great extent on training, personal attitude, departmental policies, and the nature of the wildland threat.
ENVIRONMENT
The wildland fire environment changes constantly—from hour to hour. While the temperature may be at “normal” levels away from the blaze, it has been reported to be as high as 1,200°F at the sites where firefighter emergency shelters (fire tents) have been exposed to flame contact.
Air quality. The highest risk for wildland firefighters is air quality, which is poor at best. The harder your body works, the more toxic elements you inhale. Two of the most common pollutants wildland firefighters encounter are particulates and carbon monoxide. Particulates irritate the body’s membranes and cause allergic and asthmatic reactions in susceptible individuals.
Carbon monoxide, a colorless, odorless gas produced during incomplete combustion, has a high affinity for hemoglobin, thereby replacing oxygen in the blood. The level of carbon monoxide in the blood depends on the amount of the gas in the environment, the amount of time the firefighter remains in the environment (some shifts have run from 12 to 24 hours a day for up to 31 days), and the firefighter’s respiratory activity: A firefighter in poor physical shape will inhale more polluted air. Symptoms of carbon-monoxide poisoning include headache, fatigue, drowsiness, and impaired motor performance. It also could lead to impaired judgment, which can cause injury or death.
Physical hazards. These vary across the nation, but they all cause injury and death. Remember, extinguishing a fire is only part of the job; doing it safely completes the job.
Loose, poor, and steep footing is common. Good ankle support is needed to prevent injury. Standard turnout boots add to the danger. They do not support the ankle and provide poor traction on loose, steep hillsides— increasing the chance for injury and stress to your body.
Snags. These are standing dead trees, or parts of dead trees, from which at least the leaves and smaller branches have fallen. Sometimes only small limbs fall; other times, it could be the whole tree. The hazard is greater in woodlands that have had repeated fires or recent logging operations or where dead trees are still standing.
(Photo by author.)
Rolling rocks. This hazard sometimes is increased by a lackadaisical firefighter who dislodges rocks of all sizes. Wildfire also loosens rocks by heating and cooling the land and burning out supports. Hoselines loosen them, too. Nothing adds to the excitement and hazards of a wildfire more than “bowling for firefighters.” This problem may be solved in part with increased training and physical conditioning.
Poisonous plants. One of the most frequently encountered hazards on the fireline, they include poison oak, poison ivy, and sumac. Burning poisonous plants are extreme respiratory irritants—all the more reason to stay out of the smoke. Avoid physical contact with the plants if possible. Cuttings of these plants created by chain saws and the rubbing of the plants against objects such as wristwatches, glasses, and belts can irritate the areas of skin they contact. Applying hydrocortisone cream usually relieves the itching. In severe cases, medical attention may be needed. The injections given for these conditions, however, tend to become less effective with each administering.
(Photo by R. Becker.)
Ticks. These pests are found throughout the United States. The two most commonly encountered are the Rocky Mountain spotted fever and the Pajuello ticks. Symptoms of Rocky Mountain spotted fever include chills followed by a moderately high continuous fever, headache, and intense pain in the lumbar region. A rash appears on the wrists and ankles from the second to the fifth days and then spreads to all parts of the body. Immediate medical attention is needed.
A bite from the Pajuello tick usually causes a dark, purple ring or eruption around the wound. An extreme reaction to the bite could affect the entire body and result in shock.
Lyme disease, another tick-carried hazard, has been reported all over the United States. Carried by the deer tick, this inflammatory disorder can cause symptoms such as fever, malaise, fatigue, headache, stiff neck, and neurologic or cardiac manifestations; arthritis can develop weeks to months later.
Snake bites. Each year around 45,000 cases of snake bites are reported; 7,000 cases involve poisonous snakes. Fewer than 15 people die from the venomous snake bite; and in some cases, the poor treatment, based on myth, is worse than the bite.
Out of 150 species of snakes in the United States, only four—rattlesnakes, copperheads, cottonmouth moccasins, and coral snakes—are poisonous.
Be alert for ticks and snakes, particularly in the mop-up stage, where mistakes due to fatigue commonly are made.
PROTECTIVE GEAR
Like a knight going into battle, you must dress for safety when fighting a wildland fire. You should have proper protective equipment.
Shirt/pants. Standard structural firefighting clothing is too heavy and increases body/heat stress. For less than $100 a firefighter, you can purchase lightweight Nomex® longsleeve shirts and pants, which also can be used under structural fire gear at nonwildland incidents for added safety. The outfit weighs less than fivepounds. The face can be protected by a shroud of comparable material that attaches to the helmet or by a hood used at structural fires. Nomex was designed to withstand high temperatures for short periods of time. It is fire retardant, not fireproof.
Like any other material, this lightweight fabric protects better if it is kept clean. Your last line of protection, this clothing should not be allowed to become soaked with salt buildup, flammable liquids, or dirt. (Your first line of protection is the knowledge and skills to perform safely.) Some wildland firefighters consider a dirty shirt a merit badge. This attitude is not only unsafe, it is unprofessional.
Wash your wildland firefighting clothing separately from other clothing so that flammable lint fabric does not contact and adhere to it. The lint could reduce the fabric’s effectiveness. Rinse the clothing thoroughly after washing. Fabric softener helps to prevent static electricity. Manufacturers of the clothing can provide special washing instructions.
Boots. Rubber-type boots have poor traction and ankle support for wildland applications. Those that lace up provide the best ankle support. I like boots that zip up the front for wildland and urban response. They should be at least eight inches high. Wear hard, self-cleaning soles. Softsoled boots get even softer when they come in contact with hot ashes and rocks.
It is best to wear two pairs of heavy socks so that as you move your feet, sock will rub against sock instead of against skin. Note also that when working around the burned areas, steel-toe boots may act as a heat sink. They can get very hot—and watch out for stump holes: The ground around them gets weak, and the stump hole is full of hot ashes.
Eye protection. Protection is needed not only from the sunlight but also from flying objects. Standard safety glasses work well, but most are heavy and slide off all the time. A good pair of sunglasses with side shields also works. Goggles work, too, but each style has good and bad points. All firefighters should be able to find sunglasses that suit them. Also, the cord and straps that keep safety glasses from getting lost are worth the money. Some departments prefer plastic lenses to glass because they are lightweight, but they also scratch more easily.
(Photo by R. Becker.)
Gloves. They should be comfortable and fit the hand. Break them in around the station before using them in a fire. Leather gloves work better than most natural fabric and rubber gloves. Standard firefighter gloves work okay; they are just a little heavy and make it harder to feel, but they give more heat protection.
Helmets. Standard fire helmets will protect your head. Their biggest drawback is weight. Compare protection, style, and weight before choosing a helmet. Take care of your helmet, and inspect it often. Never wear a metal helmet and always use a chin strap.
Respiratory protection. Breathing bandanas have been used with some success to filter out particulates. The California Department of Forestry and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory currently are researching and developing a unique wildland respirator. (See Fire Engineering, April 1992, p. 28.) The major problem with respirators is the length of protection time they offer.
Choice of wildland firefighting protective gear should be based on the department’s individual needs relative to the most frequently encountered wildland conditions.
OTHER SUPPLIES
Among the equipment and supplies you should have available when fighting a wildland fire are the following:
- Water. Every firefighter should have some drinking water. Canteens come in all shapes and sizes, but do not overload them with water.
- Lights. Along with a flashlight or head lamp, emergency chem-lights also could be carried. They can help you find your way when all else fails. Chem-lights also are good for marking the location of equipment or helispots.
- Knife. A knife has many uses on the fireline. This past summer two firefighters used a knife to help save the life of a firefighter who was being strangled by a section of hose.
- Flagging (the same kind used by
- surveyors). It can be used to mark hazards and spot fires, identify possible starting points, and designate a path.
- Chain saws. Firefighters who use chain saws should have Kevlar® chain saw chaps to prevent injury should their legs meet the chain saw. Train and drill regularly in chain-saw operations.
- Emergency fire shelters. They are required as part of U.S. Forest Service standard firefighting gear. Just like seat belts and air bags, the tent is used as a last resort. Proven escape procedures should be attempted first. Standard escape routes are down the line or into the black.
An emergency fire shelter looks like a child’s pup tent without doors. It is designed to reflect radiant heat away from the occupant. The outer shell is made of aluminum foil bonded to a glass cloth. The inner lining is reinforced fire retardant paper. The low profile exposes less of the firefighter’s body to radiant heat, since it keeps the firefighter close to the ground, which is cooler.
Although fire shelters have withstood high temperatures with only slight discoloration and most of the radiant heat is reflected away from the tent, temperatures of 150°F to 200°F could develop inside. While these tents can save your life, improper use could be fatal.
If you must use a tent, always clear an area around the tent to bare ground—away from snags and heavy fuel buildup. Place the tent close to other tents, and take your portable radio with you to keep in contact with the other firefighters. Wear your gloves to help hold the tent down. Leave your tools outside the tent. Place all fuel and fusees away from the area. (Fire tents sell for less than S50.) It is wise to keep a second pair of gloves with the fire shelter.
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Hazardous materials are found in many wildland areas. Some of the common sites include roadside litter, junkyards, piles of old tires, and scrap lumber from railroad ties and power poles. Past and present illegal dumping sites hold hidden enemies.
No-till (conservation tillage) uses chemicals such as paraquat. (It has a short hazard life in the environment.) Every year new chemicals are added to the no-till list. These chemicals kill the vegetation in place and leave a fuel bed of flashy type fuels that help prevent soil erosion and keep moisture in the soil longer during the dry season.
It is common today to find drug labs in the wildland fire environment. Do not take this hazard lightly, because you may encounter a witch’s brew of toxic chemicals. Marijuana plantations commonly are found —in many states, marijuana is the number one cash crop. Many chemicals are used to produce the crop. Booby traps of all types are installed to injure and kill trespassers; they can do the same to firefighters who are unaware of the hazards.
TACTICS AND FIRE CONTROL
Wildland fires call for special tactics. You must know the fire environment and the ways you best can get the upper hand. Unless you do, you will be fighting the fire on its terms— not yours. Standard safety zones are down the fireline away from the head of the fire and into the burn where the fuel already has burned up.
Do not let the smoke and flames lead you into a trap. Among these traps are flashy fuels that will outrun you; a heavy fuel load that can trap you; natural features that funnel fire like a torch (chutes, narrow valleys up slopes); power lines that often are hidden by smoke, flame, and vegetation; and downed power lines that may lie like snakes in the grass. Tunnel vision leads to poor use of resources and failure to protect the items that should be protected. Basically, we need to protect life first, improved property next, and then the water shed (for preventing floods and supplying water).
(Photo by author.)
(Photo by S. Carrol.)
Water is the most common method for controlling a wildland fire, but be sure to choose the appropriate hose size and nozzle gallonage. I have seen firefighters use a ‘/2-inch garden hose to try to control a fire. Sometimes it worked; other times the fire outran them in light flashy fuels, endangering the firefighters and damaging the hose and pumping unit.
Some believe that using a 1 ½-inch hose on a wildland fire is overkill. My crew, however, has stopped its side of a fire faster than the crews using smaller hoselines. I know of one California wildland engine company that is experimenting with 1 ‘/4-inch hose. A 1 ‘/2-inch hose and adjustable-gallonage nozzle in the hands of a skilled firefighter safely controls most fires in most fuel types—and with less water. It also increases firefighter safety should conditions take a turn for the worse.
Besides, most fire departments have 1 Vi-inch hose with national standard threads, making it possible to use the hoses of other responding departments without tot) much of a problem. By using 1 ‘/2-to-1 ‘/2-inch gated wyes, you can put safety or watch lines in as you go. With the low gallonage needed on most fires, hoselays of 4,000 to 5,000 feet are possible. Lightweight 1 ‘/2-inch hose is now on the market. Two hundred feet of 1 ‘/2-inch hose, a 1 ‘/2-to-1 ‘/2-inch gated wye, and an adjustable-gallonage nozzle weigh less than 40 pounds. The lighter weight helps reduce stress on firefighters and allows them to lay the hose faster. One wildland engine company that changed over to lightweight hose increased the amount of hose carried from 4,500 to 6,000 feet and still reduced the overall weight of the vehicle.
Over the past two years, I have used the lightweight hose on wildland fires. During that time, I have had only one line break and be put out of service. (The line was cut by a hand tool.) I have witnessed hoses with small holes burned in them supply the nozzle with water until it was safe to replace the hose.
Foams. Using Class “A” wildland foams can increase firefighter safety because they lessen knockdown time, suppress and repel fire in situations where water will not, make a better and longer-lasting wet line, and block fire spread. Foams may be used for direct attack, protective barriers, and mop up.
Fire streams. They may be one of the fastest and most common directattack tactics for controlling wildfire, but they by no means are the only method. Hand tools such as chain saws, shovels, fire rakes (council, McLeod, leaf, and the like), and the pulaski (combination axe and grubbing hoe) all have a place in wildland fire attack. Whether you use hand tools in place of water or behind it, they help prevent the fire from spreading past your control line.
It is best to follow all wet lines with a good handline. Clean a fire break down to mineral soil to prevent the fire from smoldering across it. The line should be no wider than needed to stop the spread: as a rule of thumb, one and a half times the height of the fuel that’s burning. If you make it too wide, your crew will be doing more work than is needed, slowing down the time it takes to return to quarters. But remember, a line is only as strong as its weakest link. If it fails, it will take a lot more time and money to do over. It also will cost in terms of poor public relations and possible endangerment of firefighters’ lives.
The best control line is a black line. All the unburned fuel inside the control line should be burned out or lined to help prevent the fire from crossing once you are back at the station. No matter how much water you dump on a fire, one spark will hang out just to ruin your whole day a little later. For safety, line and burn out all fires no matter how small.
Your control line needs a good anchor point from which to start all control lines. Roads are the most commonly used points unless you are a smoke jumper. Waterways, trails, old burns, rock slides, or faces are other good anchor points. All you need is something to stop the fire from getting behind you.
(Photo by author.)
(Photo by R. Becker.)
Always work at a pace that is comfortable for the whole crew. Space members 10 to 15 feet apart when working with hand tools. Be alert to changes in the weather and fire behavior. Be sure also to keep an eye out for health and safety problems other crew members may be experiencing.
Apparatus. Using the apparatus safely is everyone’s responsibility, but there are a few rules. Always use backers when backing up. Be alert for other equipment and firefighters. Park the vehicle pointing in the direction of the escape area (the way out). Do not park under power lines, dead trees, or heavy buildups of fuels. All windows should be rolled up and all compartments closed. Do not allow equipment placed on the apparatus to become a fire or safety hazard. Beware of overfilling the fuel tanks; if parked on a slope, the fuel may run out.
Use common sense when taking equipment oft’ the road. If the apparatus gets stuck, not only is it no longer mobile for fire attack, but it will be hard to get it back in service. Ask yourself these questions:
- Do I really need to drive to it?
- Was the equipment designed to perform this function?
- Will the twisting damage the frame or water tank?
- How is the vehicle loaded: Is it evenly loaded or is it top-, front-, or back-heavy?
- Do I have the appropriate type of tire tread on the drive wheels?
- Do I know the ground clearance and locations of the lowest points? Driving off road should be done only by experienced drivers. They should know how the vehicle feels and handles. The vehicle should have seat belts for everyone and rollover protection.
The U.S. Forest Service uses the following standard fire orders and “watch out” situations. By following them, you will have a safer operation.
STANDARD FIRE ORDERS
- Fight fire aggressively, but provide for safety first.
- Initiate all action based on current and expected fire behavior.
- Recognize current weather conditions and obtain forecasts.
- Ensure instructions are given and understood.
- Obtain current information on fire status.
- Remain in communication with crew members, your supervisor,
- and adjoining forces.
- Determine safety’ zones and escape routes.
- Establish lookouts in potentially hazardous situations.
- Retain control at all times.
- Stay alert, keep calm, think clearly, and act decisively.
“WATCH OUT” SITUATIONS
- Fire not scouted and sized up.
- In country not seen in daylight.
- Safety zones and escape routes not identified.
- Unfamiliar with weather and local factors influencing fire behavior.
- Uninformed on strategy, tactics, and hazards.
- Instructions and assignments not clear.
- No communication link with crew members/supervisors.
- Constructing line without safe anchor point.
- Building fireline downhill with fire below.
- Attempting frontal assault on fire.
- Unburned fuel between you and the fire.
- Cannot see main fire, not in contact with any one who can.
- On a hillside where rolling material can ignite fuel below.
- Weather is getting hotter and drier.
- Wind increases and/or changes direction.
- Getting frequent spot fires across line.
- Terrain and fuels make escape to safety’ zone difficult.
- Feel like taking a nap near the fireline.
(Photos by R. Becker.)
(Photos by author.)
Use spotters and scout the travel path before getting to the point of no return. Keep an eye out for stumps, rocks, and fences.
Even if you stick to the road, you must park so that you do not block the road for others. Sometimes, things are not as they appear. Bridges many times are the weak link in the transportation chain. Look for load limit signs. If you do not see any or question the bridge’s strength, check it out first. If your rig is too big, you may have to start from there or get a smaller rig to go across. If you arc not sure that the bridge can handle your apparatus but plan to cross anyway, offload all other personnel so that they will not be injured should the bridge fail.
Body maintenance. Our bodies— just like equipment—require proper care and maintenance. Fitness (muscular, aerobic, and flexibility) is maintenance for the body. Firefighting is not easy, but we still do not work as hard as firefighters did in the past when axes were used in place of power saws and lightweight equipment was not available. We, therefore, must work on using all our muscle groups and joints. Muscular fitness can take the form of calisthenics and weight lifting, which builds strength so that we can perform the job. Aerobic fitness includes running, bicycling, and swimming and helps determine how long we can safely do the job.
Flexibility is the range of motion within which we can move our limbs and back without pain. Improved flexibility helps reduce the potential for injury. As we get older, flexibility becomes more important. Stretching the muscles and joints increases flexibility and gives us full use of them. A physical conditioning program that includes all three kinds of workouts is best.
By now, you know that firefighter health and safety is a team effort. Like a lightweight truss roof, if one part fails to hold, it threatens the stability of the whole, resulting in possible injury or death.
Do we need any more inspiration to think “Safety first”? As firefighters, we are supposed to save lives first. Let’s start with our own.
