Firefighting in the I-Zone: Making it “Safe to Stay”
BY MICHAEL TERWILLIGER AND EDWARD WAGGONER
Wildfires are increasingly encroaching into populated areas, increasing the likelihood of life and property loss for fire departments and the communities they protect. Fire agencies in California, the Western United States, and other areas of the country as well have the potential to face wildfires within the urban interface, or the “I-Zone.”
How many times have you watched with frustration television coverage of homes being ravaged by fire? It is very likely that the homeowner involved had the mindset, “This will never happen to me.” How many times during the event have you observed news reporters showing us homes that are slowly burning down in a calm environment purely because no engines are available? Do you ever wonder why the camera person did not put the camera down and extinguish the fire with a garden hose? In these situations, we are not using a resource available to us–homeowners.
THE “SAFE TO STAY” ENVIRONMENT
If homeowners were allowed to stay with their homes under the right conditions, they could save their own investments and memories and assist us in doing our job. We need to create that “safe to stay” environment prior to the fire. As fireground managers, we need to understand the situation that will allow us to use the homeowner in the development of strategy and implementation of tactics.
What does this mean, and how do we create this environment for the homeowners and firefighters without compromising their safety while meeting the goals of this concept?
As with any fire event or problem, it is best to look at it in a format in which we are comfortable. Basically, we need a strategy and acceptable tactics for meeting that strategy. Strategy in this case will be the preplanning efforts used to create and recognize environments that are “safe to stay” prior to the event. We have three levels of strategic intervention prior to the event: general plan development, development of subdivisions, and preplanning existing subdivisions.
GENERAL PLAN/PROTECTION PLANNING
Wildfire considerations should be developed in a new general plan or be continued by updating existing plans. A section dedicated exclusively to wildfires should be created under the land use portion of the general plan. This will ensure that all issues including, but not limited to, fuel breaks, roads, water systems, structure density and placement, construction type, and areas of refuge will be addressed. Instituting this approach and, of course, maintaining the plan (keeping it updated should be a criterion listed within the plan) will greatly help firefighters in the future as well.
California`s Public Resources Code
Section 4290 of California`s Public Resources Code (PRC) has been in place for some time now and is representative of numerous fire safe programs. These regulations have forced rural areas to consider structural defense programs that may have been ignored in the past. Counties have developed fire safe ordinances equal to or greater than PRC 4290, and the successes have been noticeable and will continue to be favorable for firefighters in the future.
PRC Section 4291 addresses modifying fuel around existing structures and requires annual maintenance of the defensible space zone. Developing regulations to enhance Section 4291 would be of significant value and should be considered to strengthen our existing programs.
The Truckee Fire Protection District Ordinance
The Truckee Fire Protection District has developed an ordinance to complement PRC 4291. It addresses vacant lots or larger parcels adjacent to parcels with improvements and empowers the fire officer to force a landowner adjacent to an improved parcel to clean up dead and down fuels or contiguous fuel beds whether a structure is on the parcel or not. The logic is to not allow fuel loading on an unimproved parcel to negate the work done on an adjacent im-proved parcel.
Many times, wildfires are carried throughout subdivisions in fuels that exist on unimproved parcels and damage improvements. This ordinance will hopefully remove fuels that will make homes untenable during an extreme wildfire and perhaps will begin to develop an area that will be declared “safe to stay” for homeowners and firefighters.
In addition, eliminating fuel concentrations on unimproved lots makes it possible to achieve perimeter control, in that it is not necessary to spend so much time “connecting the dots”1 when fighting fire in and about homes.
The ordinance also dictates fuel modification zones beyond the 30-foot distance based on slope, fire line intensity, and fuel loading.
Addressing fire line intensity and fuel loading when considering ordinance language is simply recognizing basic fire behavior principles. Although the leading cause of structural ignition in wildfires is airborne embers, the effects of flame impingement and significant or prolonged radiant heat must also be considered. Although spotting is significant, radiant heat is a key component when discussing resistance to control and the effect on firefighters. Fuel loading and location, slope, and anticipated intensities in a fuel complex will dictate the distance required to eliminate potential flame impingement or radiant heat on the improvement.
PREPLANNING
Existing subdivisions and properties in rural areas are under scrutiny from fire agencies to ensure that defensible space is completed in an adequate manner on an annual basis. This program is effective, but it is difficult to achieve 100 percent compliance for many reasons, including the following:
Weed abatement ordinances, as discussed, and fuel breaks are being implemented, but they are costly and labor intensive.
The desire to have seclusion or privacy.
The attitude that it won`t happen to me.
Lack of personal accountability.
These factors are severely hampering our efforts and certainly seem to outweigh residents` fear that wildfire will threaten their homes.
Just as municipal fire departments preplan large structures for structural fire problems, subdivisions must be preplanned for wildfire. Preplans should include maps indicating all types of hazards and areas with the potential for high fire intensity; water problems; and, of course, homes that are “safe to stay.” Large subdivision maps would show the low-, medium-, and high-hazard areas and the areas of refuge and indicate where homeowners could go to be kept abreast of current events during the fire.
Homeowners should be made aware of the process and become involved in formulating the preplans perhaps through mechanisms such as neighborhood watch programs. If nothing else, offering a homeowner the opportunity to save his home if certain criterion are met prior to a fire will encourage compliance with fuel modification issues. Many times, we could dissipate homeowners` anger by sharing what we do with the public and making them part of our team.
Other incentives may be available through insurance agencies. In our district, local insurance carriers are becoming increasingly aware of the defensible space program and are factoring the outcome of inspections into the writing of their insurance policies.
FUEL MODIFICATION WORKS
Keeping fuel concentrations low in subdivisions has additional benefits. During the Raulsen Fire in Butte County in northern California in 1994, homeowners were allowed back into the devastated area immediately after the fire passed through and the threat was over. This was possible because the fuel in that area had been modified prior to the fire. Moreover, the program gave homeowners a better understanding of the environment with which firefighters must interact and helped to develop long-term support. Complaints about property lost diminished, and many homeowners became part of the “team” that continued to protect the neighborhood from smoldering fires. Not all homeowners took advantage of the option, but those who did were better prepared to support home defense programs.
“SAFE TO STAY” CRITERIA
The concept of “safe to stay” allows a homeowner the opportunity to assist in protecting his home. The program has other benefits, but refuge is the primary concern. Liability considerations pertaining to “safe to stay” are addressed below.
Strategy
The procedure for designating “safe to stay” areas is not based on hard-and-fast rules. Areas are so designated as the incident dictates. Before making the determination of whether a home is “safe to stay,” look at the following factors.
Criteria
Construction
–Fire resistive material, including noncombustible roofing with metal, is the most desirable type of construction. Fire resistive composition with treated wood shake is the least desirable.
–Desirable are the following: fire resistive siding such as stucco or block, aluminum, then T-1 wood siding.
–Screened vents, closed-in eaves, metal gutters, and closed-in decks are desirable, as are metal window screens.
–Consider susceptibility to spot fires or fire brands–wood piles, yard litter, and general external housekeeping.
Topography
–Homes located on cooler aspects2 such as north and easterly are less likely to become available fuels than those on western and southern aspects.
–The percent of slope and a home`s relationship to the slope are important. Homes on slopes 30 percent or greater are much more likely to absorb higher intensities and possible flame impingement than those on lesser slopes.
–Homes within or adjacent to chimneys3 and chutes or directly aligned with localized wind conditions due to channeling4 or other local influences are more likely to be compromised.
Fuels
–General fuel modification. Shaded fuel breaks and the removal of continuous fuel beds are a must; they eliminate higher intensities adjacent to the property. Consider defensible fuel profile zones.
–Crown closure of aerial fuels5 greater than 75 percent should be eliminated in such a manner that they will not allow a crown fire adjacent to the home.
— Fuel conditions based on time of year, species, and anticipated or actual fuel moisture percent should be considered and understood when preplanning a subdivision. Basically, the fire officer must know when fuels will become available for consumption based on seasonal changes.
–Consider at all levels of planning expected fire line intensities–which are reasonably predictable–that will be generated by the surrounding available fuels at any given time. Include fuel concentrations and the expected burnout time.
Fire Behavior
–Many times conflagrations, such as the 1993 Topanga Fire in southern California, are very intense at the flaming front. They do not always consume all fuels in their path and have pockets of lesser intensities and rates of spread due to many things that can be predicted prior to a fire. Preplanning that includes consideration of fuels, weather, and topography can indicate the areas that may be quite tenable during a major fire prior to the event. This information will be of assistance in developing hazard maps during the preplan effort.
Infrastructure
–Road widths that will accommodate two lanes of traffic are optimum so emergency equipment does not interfere with people leaving the area. Fuel on each side of the roadway should be modified so that there is a minimum of 15 feet of clear space on each side to ensure ingress and egress during a fire. This stipulation is now part of many California fire safe ordinances.
–Assess water systems by their ability to survive a fire. Are they municipal or domestic, gravity fed, or electrically driven pump supplied? Is the source available and plentiful for the anticipated needs?
–Driveway standards should allow for a free flow of engines and personnel as well as easy maneuverability of equipment at the home.
–Dead-end roads should not exceed the length vs. density criteria for your area. Turn-arounds should allow for full turning for engines.
–Consider established safe zones within the community–such as football fields, parks, and golf courses–and their availability to the public. Homeowners can be sent to these areas until the fire passes, eliminating the cluttering of access roads with residents` automobiles. These should be definite safe zones and not deployment zones. The difference between a safe zone and a deployment zone must be understood.6 The new, large Lahontan subdivision of homes in the Truckee area is “safe to stay.” Located in a wildland setting, developers have embraced the “safe to stay” concept by locating the golf course as a fuel break and safe zone, using fire resistive construction, and modifying fuel throughout the subdivision so that if a fire approaches, occupants will not be moved out.
Density
–Consider the density of structures and the likelihood that a burning home will actually compromise homes next to it. A nondefensible home may compromise and render useless the capabilities of an adjacent homeowner to protect his home. Affected structures are more likely to threaten adjacent structures in areas where houses are set close together than in areas that have stipulated 20- to 30-foot setbacks. Slope and prevailing winds must also be considered.
–Consider the density and condition of homes on the perimeter of the subdivision that will likely absorb the major impact of the initial flaming front as it hits the subdivision. Will they absorb the impact and impede the fire? Or will they enhance the fire? Will they severely draw available resources? In 1996, the Belli Ranch Fire east of Reno spread rapidly into a subdivision in Reno. The perimeter homes were affected but were capable of stopping the perimeter at that point. Homeowners were asked to walk across the street to neighbors` homes until the threat passed. This eliminated unnecessary traffic out of the subdivision.
Neighborhood
–Are there educational groups with block captains to coordinate activities aimed at establishing defensible space and the “safe to stay” criteria? Have local agencies educated the locals on the criteria to stay and how to operate under these conditions? Residents must understand how the environment changes when a fire passes and how to handle themselves under changing conditions. Many times, homeowners opt to stay until the fire arrives. The intensity of the environment surprises them and then they want to leave. When fire service resources are actively involved in suppression activities is not the optimum time to be leaving.
–Is the local law enforcement group staffed and trained to support this concept? In most cases, the fire department orders evacuation, but the law enforcement agency implements it. Will law enforcement support the “safe to stay” concept, and do they know which structures/areas meet the criteria for this particular event? In too many cases, local law enforcement is unfamiliar with fire and does not understand the operational needs. Prior discussions and cross-training with these people will help them to help you.
The process listed above is not the complete answer to determining a “safe to stay” property. It is only information that can help us to make an informed decision. Along with the preplanning and education programs, we must be willing to support the individuals and communities actually under siege from a wildfire.
Tactics
Perimeter control. A key to success in fire suppression during urban interface fires is staying focused on the fire you are battling. This is a vegetation fire spreading through forest fuels that occasionally encounters a home and perhaps sets it on fire. Therefore, it is beneficial to keep in mind that you should be concentrating on suppressing the vegetation fire by approved methods. This is simply attacking the perimeter of the fire at convenient points. Although homes on fire should be dealt with, we can stop others from catching fire simply by stopping the vegetation fire from moving forward. It is beneficial to brief our personnel with this concept in mind. Creating structure protection groups establishes the mindset that the job is to protect homes, not fight wildfire. Establish tactical subdivisions as groups or divisions, but their operational control objectives should be to attack the perimeter to keep the homes from igniting.
Resource allocation. Keeping the perimeter control process in mind, consider deploying resources as they are best suited for their assignment. Many agencies have equipment specifically designed and staffed to deal with wildfires. They are typically Type III engines, fire crews, bulldozers, and air support, which should be the primary resources used when meeting the perimeter of the fire. This rule stands firm regardless of the perimeter`s location within the subdivision. These are the Marines when discussing infantry-style combat. They are better equipped to deal with actual perimeter control than municipal-type resources.
Agencies primarily concerned with structural fire suppression use ICS Types I and II engines. Although designed for structural firefighting, it is quite simple to prepare them for wildfire fighting activities. Type II fire crews can be used on active fire lines but in some cases are only allowed to be used on nonhot lines such as cold trailing and mop-up situations. These resources can be used directly behind the perimeter control resources to suppress structure fires and protect homes that have survived. Their actual assignment time will be dictated by the conditions present, fuel burnout time, and type of construction. They will stay in the areas directly vacated by perimeter control resources to hold ground gained and mop up areas immediately adjacent to the structures.
Although historically Types I and II engines have been classified informally as “plug buggies” capable of structural firefighting only, it is perhaps time to adjust our philosophies. These engines are quite capable of attacking wildfires as a Type III engine; they lack only off-road capabilities. Fire departments should staff these engines with personnel trained in wildfire control and equip the engines with a complement of single-jacketed hose, perhaps 400 to 600 feet with adapters, and a complement of hand tools. In reality, many of the tools mentioned above are carried on Truckee Fire Protection District Type I engines and are used effectively to control structural fires. Personnel on these engines should be given the correct personal protective equipment for wildfire control and understand the basic premise of wildland fire behavior.
Types IV through VII engines, referred to in some areas as patrol vehicles, should be used to patrol cooler areas after the other equipment has left the area. These are usually pickup truck-type vehicles with pumps that have very small capacities, but they are very mobile in congested areas. Their purpose is to prevent homes catching fire from smoldering bark in flowerbeds or an errant firebrand. It is also comforting to homeowners in the area to see fire personnel long after the fire has passed. Their assignment includes mopping hot material not covered by the Types I and II engines for up to a minimum of 50 feet around all structures.
LIMITATIONS OF THE PLAN
A “safe to stay” plan may have political implications and may not always be appropriate or operationally feasible. A prepared fireground commander can certainly have this concept well in hand prior to a fire and be successful. An organized approach to ordering resources and tactical considerations during a planning need situation will integrate with this concept quite effectively.7
Organization. We are familiar with the use of task forces to group equipment to complete a given task on incidents. To assist operational planning, a group can be developed with task forces of personnel if the situation dictates to do nothing but structure triage prior to the fire`s reaching the area of concern. This can be done immediately during the fire or as a planning need for the next burning period. This group can work directly for operations or be part of the situation unit. Either method would be appropriate as long as the mission is clear and the information is made available during planning sessions.
Changing roles. As mentioned above, use of terminology can actually dictate how an individual responds to an assignment. Developing “groups” and assigning them to structure protection will lead to just that–structure protection. Consider assigning divisions to areas where homes are threatened. Their task would be to do perimeter control around the structures or before the fire reaches the structure. Historically, we have created divisions that are linear. Perhaps they should have depth as well as length and cover an area such as a complete subdivision. In essence, do not separate the structure defense from perimeter control. It should be the same assignment. The primary concern will be to determine if the attack will be offensive, defensive, or a combination.
Liability. In this day and age, there will always be someone who says, “We can`t tell people `it`s safe to stay`–they might sue if something happens.” If this is allowed to remain the mindset, you are dead in the water before you start. The challenge is to find a way through the liability issue. One way to approach it is to bring all the experts together (law enforcement, fire, government, insurance industry, lawyers, and so on) and determine exactly what the liability issues would be and if there are ways to mitigate them. Again, sheltering in place has long been the strategy used in incidents involving hazardous materials and other incidents involving mass or difficult evacuations, such as hospital and nursing home fires. We only have to look at the huge loss of life in the Oakland Hills Fire (1991) during evacuation to know that we must find a better way.8 Australia has long been confronted with the problem of loss of lives during evacuation and has pioneered the “safe to stay” area in many parts of the country. The liability issue can be mitigated or minimized. It just needs to be addressed directly and up front.
Incentives. There should be homeowner incentives for participating in “safe to stay” programs outside those associated with the fire agency role. Perhaps options could be offered through the insurance and real estate industries. The Truckee Fire Protection District has proposed that defensible space be a point-of-sale item when a home or property is sold. Currently roof inspections, foundation inspections, and termite inspections are mandatory before a home can change hands. The real estate consortium in the Truckee area fought this concept to its death because of the impact it may have on its industry when trying to close a sale. It is the fire district`s opinion that many more houses are burning down from wildfire than are falling down from termites.
The insurance industry has tremendous potential concerning the defensible space issue and ensuring that homes become “safe to stay.” It would be quite easy to require that a property be “safe to stay” before writing an insurance policy on that property. As mentioned earlier, this is starting to happen in isolated areas and should be pursued nationally.
Other homeowner options might be minimizing special assessments and lowering taxes for homeowners meeting the “safe to stay” criteria. The rationale for these incentives could be money–that the money that doesn`t have to be spent protecting their property during a fire event can be directed to another area. Conversely, perhaps we should explore ways in which the increased cost of fire protection can be passed on to property owners who refuse to become part of the team and continue to create spaces that present problems for the fire service.
Using the homeowner as a resource during wildfires through the “safe to stay” concept can be a suppression as well as a prevention tool. Common sense says that preventing a fire costs much less than suppressing one. “Safe to stay” if nothing else, makes the citizens aware of the need to protect their property and to accept some accountability for where they choose to live and how they choose to live. The perception should be, If I prepare my property to survive a fire, I will be allowed to stay and be rewarded for my efforts. n
Endnotes
1. When fire burns among homes that have fuel concentrations, we concentrate on perimeter control. If the fuel between homes or on vacant lots between homes is removed, there is not as much fire between the homes. In this case, the home is the dot. When you create a cold line from house to house, you are in effect connecting the dots.
2. When discussing topography, the direction a slope faces is the aspect. Northern and eastern slopes don`t receive the solar radiation as long, so they are cooler aspects. This significantly affects the fuel moisture; hot slopes burn faster.
3. A chimney is a steep draw that a fire will run up, just like smoke out a chimney.
4. Channeling refers to the topographical condition in which wind follows drainages and canyons as water follows a stream bed. It is an important issue when discussing topographical effects on fire.
5. Crowns are the aerial fuels or the canopy of trees. The closer they are, the more continuous the horizontal fuel bed, thus the fire would be more likely to carry under the right conditions. Crown fires are normally found in timber fires during extreme conditions. Opening the crowns allows the fire to drop back down to a surface fuel fire and makes the fire more susceptible to suppression efforts. The fire will produce less radiant heat as well.
6. A safe zone is an area of sufficient clearance so that firefighters and civilians are not in danger from any fire effect; examples would be a golf course or other large area. A deployment zone is an area in which fire shelters must be used or refuge must be taken in a vehicle to be safe. Civilians should not be moved into such an area. The intent is to be sure that the area to which people are moved is safe when not wearing fire protection equipment.
7. Basically, if resources are requested for a planned need, they are going to be used for an operational period other than the present one operation. When an IC has the time, he should be able to order the correct resources for the correct assignment and use them to complement the preplanning process. As noted above, certain types of resources are best used for certain types of assignments. During an immediate need situation, the closest resources are applied as they arrive in the best way possible. This does not always result in the optimum use of equipment. It is the fireground commander`s responsibility to know how to best use all equipment at all times.
8. Twenty-five civilians and one firefighter died, more than 3,000 dwelling units were destroyed, and 1,700 acres were lost in the Oakland Hills Fire. Narrow, winding, steep roads with heavy fuels caused the fire to spread so fast that it trapped people in their homes; there was no way out.
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Defensible space around homes not only allows the homeowner an opportunity to protect his home; it also gives firefighters a safe zone in which to operate. The alternative is unacceptable–many times life-threatening and damaging.
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A home that is “safe to stay” will withstand a significant fire front while sustaining little or no damage. This home had adequate fuel modification and construction techniques to survive a wind-driven brush fire.
MICHAEL TERWILLIGER is chief of the Truckee (CA) Fire District. He began his career in 1972 with the California Department of Forestry, where he served for 24 years, in the following assignments: division chief of operations (South) in Nevada-Yuba-Placer Ranger Unit and operations section chief and planning section chief on a Type I team from 1988-1996. He is a certified fire behavior analyst and was assigned to national teams during the Yellowstone fires. He is incident commander for Sierra Front Team “A,” which operates along the Eastern California/Nevada border. He also instructs operations section chiefs, division group supervisors, and strike team leaders.
EDWARD WAGGONER retired from the California Department of Forestry after 34 years of service. He achieved the position of chief of operations (North) in the Nevada-Yuba-Placer Ranger unit and was a Type I state incident commander and operations sections chief on a national team from 1986 to 1996. He is a certified Type I planning section chief and logistics chief. He now supervises the private company of North Tree Fire, Inc., which contracts equipment and personnel to government agencies in major incidents in the Western United States.
