BY ERIC G. BACHMAN
Preincident intelligence is an important fire service tool. It is necessary to identify equipment needs and other special resources. It is useful for determining specific training requirements and is a vital resource for incident management. Preincident preparedness articles have greatly reinforced the need to gather target hazard-specific information such as access, floor plan layout, and utilities. Another essential aspect of preincident preparedness is water supply. One of the most important fireground resources is water. If you don’t have water, you can’t establish and maintain a consistent water supply or support a water-suppression medium. Most likely, the incident will deteriorate rapidly with unfavorable results.
Some areas are fortunate to have hydrants in their jurisdictions supplied by a municipal water authority. Others must rely on mobile water tankers. In any case, you must identify where your water supplies are located. You must locate not only primary water supplies but secondary contingencies as well. If a water main breaks, leaving an area without water, what will you do? Even if the delay is only for a short time, Murphy’s Law will surely come into play. If a pond or stream dries up, what will you do?
 (1) A dry hydrant at an abandoned quarry. The area around the hydrant is unprepared dirt. (Photos by author.) |
This article is not intended to outline rural water supply methods or hydrant operations. Rather, it is to reinforce the need for fire officials to evaluate and improve their water source intelligence. It is imperative to identify both primary and secondary water sources. Just because your area has hydrants does not mean you may not need to establish an alternate means of water supply.
 (2) A dry hydrant at a pond with a concrete pad for apparatus operations. |
The process of gathering intelligence on water supplies is similar to that used for target hazards. Types and locations, as well as flows, are important factors to consider. This information must be determined and trained on prior to an incident. Coupled with target hazard-specific information, such as required fire flows, water source information is vital in determining your ability to suppress a fire. Identifying deficiencies prior to an incident will enable you to develop contingencies. Not knowing this information prior to an emergency, however, will result in delayed initiation of a consistent water supply. There are enough unknowns when responding to an emergency. Water sources should not be one of them.
Water supply, regardless of demographics, entails a five-step process.
 3) A drafting operation at a pond. |
• Determine how much water is needed through preincident survey and fire flow calculations.
• Determine where the water is located. Consider all of your options.
• Determine how to get the water to the fire. In a municipal system, large-diameter hose may be sufficient. In other areas, lengthy hose lays or mobile tanker shuttles may be the specified means.
• Practice establishing a water supply, and determine if the desired water flow can be achieved and sustained.
• Evaluate your operations, and review the above steps.
 (4) The same pond frozen over. A frozen pond may prevent the site�s being used for drafting. |
Often, fire officials claim that there wasn’t enough water. There may be some acceptable excuses; however, in most cases, the underlying reason for this is that the fire department did not prepare to supply adequate water.
WATER SUPPLY GOAL
The primary goal of water supply operations is to maintain a consistent and sustained supply so that the fire goes out before the fuel is consumed. A critical factor in the success or failure of this goal is avoiding delayed water transport, especially in a mobile tanker-shuttle operation. Understanding water sources, including their number and locations, will help you to select the closest and most appropriate source. Transportation delays from long-distance sources and the speed of off-loading are critical factors to consider in delivering water. As listed in the water source planning process, you must practice and evaluate.
IDENTIFYING WATER SOURCES
Identifying draft/fill sites should not be an afterthought at an emergency. It is important to identify natural water sources, including streams and ponds as well as other manmade sources including cisterns and swimming pools, before an emergency. Water source preincident preparedness is more than just knowing where those sources are located. Understanding how much water is available, how to get it, and how to distribute it is essential. Many variables affect the fire department’s ability to use a water source. Each source must be evaluated, prepared for, and reevaluated through practice. Just because a water source exists does not mean it is a viable resource.
 Characteristics of this draft site include (5) railroad tracks and (6) access to a river, which (7) freezes over in the winter. |
• Accessibility. Distance to, topography of, and terrain around a water source are critical factors. How far is the water source from the incident? This is important in determining whether a supply line or a tanker shuttle should be initiated. The area’s topography may not lend itself well to large fire apparatus’ getting to the water source. What is the terrain? Soft ground will not support heavy fire apparatus. In areas with predesignated dry hydrants, what is the platform from which apparatus can operate? Is it just ground, or has a designated concrete pad been constructed (photos 1, 2)?
 (8) A close-up of a sign for a designated water source. |
• Capability and reliability. What is the gallon-per-minute (gpm) flow capability of the water source, and what is the required fire flow for the situation? This information is needed to determine if enough water can be supplied. How reliable is the site? Ponds usually have more limited water supplies than free-flowing streams or rivers. Is the pond used for other situations, such as irrigation, that may affect how much water is available? It is important to constantly monitor the available water supply capacities and keep accurate records of the levels (photo 3).
 (9) A designated draft site at a small stream. What is the flow capability of this source? |
• Weather. What climatic changes are expected, and how will they affect supplies? Is it a year-round source, or is it dependent on the seasons? Seasonal considerations, such as freezing and drought conditions, will affect the accessibility and availability of water supplies (photo 4).
Other conditions may exist as well. The designated draft site in photo 5, for example, necessitates crossing railroad tracks. If this site is used, the fire department must coordinate with the railroad to ensure that no trains are traveling those tracks during drafting operations. On the other side of the tracks, this drafting site is basically a trail to a river (photo 6), which freezes over in the winter (photo 7).
 (10) A designated draft site at a bridge over a small stream. |
Regardless of the variables, fire officials need to research and plan relative to what the water requirements are, what is available, and when it will be available. Calculate fire flow in advance. NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) 1231, Standard on Water Supplies for Suburban and Rural Firefighting, provides information on how to calculate minimum water supply. It is also important to preplan backup water sources as well as additional water sources that can be used throughout the operation. History as well as long-time residents of the area may be able to assist you in determining the reliability of a water source.
SITE CONSIDERATIONS
You must continuously monitor and maintain sources designated for water. Simply stating that a particular pond will be used in case of a fire is not proper preincident preparedness. Many aspects to identifying a site in addition to those mentioned above will affect the success of a preplanned water source program.
Acquaint the owners of the predetermined sites, whether public or private, with the department’s intentions to use the site as a water source, and obtain permission to do so. In the old days (and in some instances still), the agreement for use of the water sources was based on a handshake. Today, however, it is best to have a written agreement signed by all parties.
 (12) The cones indicate where the driver should place the tanker at this fill site. |
Several items should be addressed in the agreement, including the property owner’s permission to let the fire department use the water source; accessibility to the site by the fire department; maintenance of the site (ability to access) including weed control/snow plowing and so on; who will pay if the property is damaged; liability issues related to insufficient water or use of the water source; agreement termination provisions; and other conditions based on the specific circumstances.
Maintaining the site is critical. The site, whether a draft site or dry hydrant, must be clear of obstacles and debris, such as overgrown landscape. Depending on the climate, snow removal or plowing at the site also needs to be considered. Prearranged maintenance agreements with landowners and municipal officials must be made to ensure that the site is always ready for use. Imagine the consequences if a drafting or fill-site apparatus were assigned to a particular site and the crew found it inaccessible. In this case, the preincident water supply plan would be null and void.
 (14) A hard sleeve from the pump panel of the nurse apparatus to the porta-tank. |
Maintain accurate records of the designated sites; list the location, source type, type of feed (draft or dry hydrant), how much water it will supply, and whether it is a year-round source (one that can be depended on virtually the entire year in most seasons and weather conditions). Nothing is guaranteed, and extreme weather conditions must be considered. Constantly monitor sites for their readiness for use. Freezing conditions may prohibit use of a predesignated site.
PREINCIDENT PREPAREDNESS ISSUES
Several preincident preparedness considerations will improve incident operations and the efficiency of the predetermined water source. Although not in any particular order, each factor is important; other items, not mentioned here, may also be of significance, depending on local conditions and circumstances.
 (15) The second porta-tank is placed for a standard dual porta-tank operation. Note the hard sleeve from the rear intake on the nurse apparatus into the second porta-tank. |
Designate a water supply officer (WSO). The responsibilities of this position start well before a response. The officer should have a thorough knowledge of water supply issues and be able to coordinate with other organizations and the public. Among the duties related to this position are the following, which necessitate a great deal of work prior to an incident:
 (16) Two tankers dump at the same time. The tanker in the background is waiting to back up. |
• Determine needed fire flows.
• Identify water sources, their capabilities, needs, and means for delivering the water.
• Maintain site-specific information for each water source.
• Train fire department personnel and mutual-aid companies to ensure efficient operations.
• Meet with owners of the land on which the water sources are located to discuss fire department needs and develop agreements for use.
• Test and evaluate water-distribution capabilities, and seek means of improvement.
• Develop interagency agreements and mutual-aid cooperation with regard to water supplies and tanker shuttles.
 (17) Each porta-tank has its own six-inch hard suction equipped with a floating dock strainer with riser plate to prevent damage to the porta-tank or the pump. |
During an actual event, a WSO should be assigned to oversee all aspects of the operation. The WSO should communicate with fill and dump site officers to determine the effectiveness of the operation. The WSO should also communicate with the incident commander on the status of the water supply operation and request resources that are needed.
 (18) The suppression apparatus with two supply lines are in the foreground; the dump site operation is in the background. |
Even though the designated water source sites are listed on paper, it may be useful to post a sign on the property. These signs are also important for routine surveillance. Parked vehicles or other obstacles interfering with accessibility in designated areas can be dealt with prior to an incident. The signs must be easily identifiable. Continued monitoring of posted signs is important to ensure they are not removed or damaged by vandals, in which case they should be replaced or repaired as soon as possible-to avoid confusion and delays in identifying and accessing the sites in an emergency.
Mutual-Aid Awareness and Training
Ongoing training with mutual-aid companies is essential. The training should be held at draft/fill sites and also include exercises. Identify mobile water tankers; designate routes of travel (to reduce transportation delays); and coordinate, practice, test, and evaluate functions such as filling, driving, and dumping before an incident occurs. You must identify any deficiencies before an event.
WITMER FIRE PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION GUIDELINE
For many years, the Witmer Fire Protective Association (WFPA), in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, has been a leader in the area of moving water in rural areas. It spent many years planning, testing, critiquing, and evaluating its water-supply practices. Through training and experience, it developed a water-supply guideline that has worked well for its area. The model guideline is divided into three areas: Basic Tanker Shuttle Guidelines, Tanker Shuttle Fill Site Operations, and Tanker Shuttle Dump Site Operations.
Basic Shuttle Guidelines
The area was preplanned; fire flow requirements were calculated, and water sources were identified. The following was determined:
• To achieve a fire flow goal of 2,000 gpm, 10 mobile water tankers, each with a minimum capacity of 3,000 gallons, were needed.
• Each tanker preferably should have 10-inch dump capabilities-dumps smaller than eight inches should not be used.
• Another tanker should be included for unforeseen problems, such as a breakdown or malfunction, to ensure the system’s continuity.
• Variables include a two-mile round trip from the scene to the fill site, back to the dump site. Each mobile tanker should be able to dump its water into a porta-tank within two minutes. Travel time should be three minutes each way (six minutes total); maximum fill time should be four minutes. Therefore, each tanker should be able to dump, travel to the fill site, be refilled, and travel back to the dump site within 12 minutes.
• Each fill site must have the capacity to flow 1,000 gpm minimum.
• One fill site should be assigned for every three tankers in the shuttle.
• At some of the identified water sources, multiple fill engines can be initiated.
• If the water supply distance is more than two miles round trip, an additional tanker of at least 2,500 gallons should be added for each half mile above two miles. Therefore, if the round trip is three miles, 12 mobile tankers (plus one safety tanker) will be needed, and four fill sites must be established. The situation should be monitored for effectiveness and can be scaled back, depending on the fire flow requirements.
Fill Site Guidelines
A fill site officer (FSO) should be appointed at each site, to communicate with the incident WSO. All water supply communications should be assigned a frequency separate from the fireground. This will allow efficient direction of tanker movement to the available fill site. Marking the fill site with traffic cones (photo 12) will dictate where the tanker driver should align the vehicle.
The guidelines for fill site operations include the following:
• Use a pumper with at least a 1,250-gpm pump.
• Use a manifold with two two- or three-inch supply lines with three-inch quick couplers for prompt connect and disconnect.
• Fill site pumpers should fill only one tanker at a time. It is better to have a full tanker heading back to the dump site than two half-full tankers being filled at the same time.
• Assign a firefighter to each fill line. The FSO monitors the operation. One firefighter operates the fill manifold, and two firefighters connect and disconnect the couplers. As a tanker is reaching capacity, one of the two lines to a second tanker may be opened to make the changeover to the second filling more efficient.
Dump Site Guidelines
A dump site officer (DSO) should be appointed to coordinate travel routes and direct tankers to a specific dump porta-tank. The DSO will coordinate with the FSO to dispatch tankers to the appropriate fill site. The DSO and FSO shall report to the WSO on the progress of the operation and whether additional resources are needed.
 (19) The flow meter, inserted in the supply line, monitors and confirms the flow. |
Depending on the needed fire flow, you could use a single porta-tank, a standard dual porta-tank, or an in-line dual porta-tank process, which the department can use with its engine or tanker, referred to as the “nurse” apparatus. Each apparatus is equipped with at least two six-inch intakes that are gated behind the pump panel. A siphon, which draws water from a porta-tank into the one being drawn from with a suction hose, is not necessary because each tank has its own suction hose.
A single porta-tank operation is just that: One porta-tank is used. For this operation, the tank preferably is placed directly behind the nurse apparatus to streamline the site profile (photo 14). This practice is especially well suited to areas of limited width. A standard dual porta-tank operation requires two tanks. One is set up directly behind the nurse apparatus, the other next to the apparatus (photo 15). For this operation, a 36-foot minimum width is required to accommodate the nurse apparatus, the porta-tank, and the dumping tanker. An inline dual porta-tank operation places a porta-tank directly in front of and behind the nurse apparatus (photo 16). Again, this method can be used when there are width constraints.
 20) The end result of the exercise is an elevated master stream, an apparatus-mounted monitor, and a three-inch handline (not visible in the photo) in service in front of the apparatus. |
EVALUATION
On November 29, 2003, a simulated barn fire drill was conducted to test the WFPA research findings. The initial alarm (dispatched at 9:01 a.m.) consisted of two engines, three tankers (including one of the nurse apparatus), and a ladder truck. The IC arrived and established command and assigned a WSO. At 9:05 a.m., the first-arriving pumper tanker (equipped with a 2,500-gallon tank) dropped its porta-tank at the start of the access road, pulled to the end of the driveway to the “fire,” and immediately went into service with a three-inch handline flowing 500 gpm. The first-in pumper (1,000-gallon tank capacity) dropped a supply line from the initial access point and prepared to supply the first-in pumper tanker. Tanker 410-1 (3,000 gallons of water and 1,750-gpm pump) arrived as the nurse apparatus and immediately deployed the dropped porta-tank and appointed a DSO. The truck company arrived and positioned for master stream operations. The second-in engine laid a supply line from the nurse tanker to the scene to supply the elevated master stream (photo 18). The third-in tanker (4,200 gallons) arrived and started to dump its load into the porta-tank.
Five minutes after the first alarm (9:06 a.m.), the second alarm was dispatched; it included three engine companies and 10 tankers. Two of the engines were sent to predetermined ponds for drafting operations. The third engine went to a hydrant supplied by a municipal authority three miles away. Each fill site engine assigned an FSO. The next-arriving tanker with a porta-tank dropped its tank, and a standard dual porta-tank system was established.
At 9:17 a.m., an apparatus-mounted deck gun flowing more than 500 gpm was placed in service. At no time prior to or during this transition was the flow interrupted or the flow less than 500 gpm. An in-line flow meter (photo 19) was inserted into the supply line and monitored during the entire evolution.
At 9:18 a.m., a third alarm was requested, bringing an additional two engines and four tankers. As the fill sites were established and the tankers received travel and fill-site assignments, the elevated master stream was placed in service at 9:22 a.m., flowing just over 1,000 gpm. In less than 18 minutes after arrival and deployment of the first line, a flow of 2,000 gpm was established. For more than 90 minutes after the elevated master stream was initiated, a more than 2,200-gpm flow was maintained. The drill was a success. Despite the success, the company continues to review, practice, and improve its water-supply operations.
• • •
Water supply is an essential element at an incident. Knowing where and how to get water is a basic fire department function. Often, however, fire officials fail to determine the quantity of water required and the actual water available. Sometimes a water source is known, but the fire department does not evaluate how effectively the water can be accessed and delivered. The end result is usually unfavorable. Preincident preparedness entails more than listing potential water sources. It requires evaluating the sites for flows, accessibility, and constant monitoring of water levels throughout the seasons. It takes training and practice to ensure that operations run as smoothly as possible at an incident. Through continued practice and evaluation, water-supply operations can be improved so that water flows are consistent and uninterrupted. There are many surprises at an emergency. The water supply should not be one of them. ■
■ ERIC G. BACHMAN, a 22-year veteran of the fire service, is former fire chief of the Eden Volunteer Fire/Rescue Department in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, and currently serves as captain. He is the hazardous materials administrator for the County of Lancaster Emergency Management Agency and serves on the Local Emergency Planning Committee of Lancaster County. He is registered with the National Board on Fire Service Professional Qualifications as a fire officer IV, fire instructor II, hazardous materials technician, and hazardous materials incident commander. He has an associate’s degree in fire science and professional certification in emergency management through the state of Pennsylvania. He is also a volunteer firefighter with the Manheim (PA) Fire Department.
