Training For RADIATION ACCIDENT Resporse
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
The nuclear industry has the potential for both tremendous benefit and catastrophic danger. When radiation accidents have occurred in the past, fear and a lack of understanding of radioactive materials, radiation, and radiological monitoring equipment have resulted in inappropriate responses. Trained personnel on the local level must be able to respond properly and effectively to such accidents. While both the state and federal governments maintain radiological emergency response teams, it takes time for them to arrive on the scene. Until and even after they arrive, local-level personnel will have to make decisions and take appropriate actions.
RADIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Radioactive materials can be found virtually everywhere. If an accident occurs while these materials are being processed, transported, used, or stored, local-level response team members must know what to do.
The risks from radioactive materials vary—some products pose no immediate danger, while others are so radioactive that even an exposure of just a few seconds can result in painful injuries or death.
TYPES OF ACCIDENTS
The period during which radioactive material is most likely to be involved in an accident is while it is in transport. From 1970 to 1990, the United States Department of Transportation reported 499 accidents involving radioactive materials.
The cargo most often involved in accidents was low-level radioactive waste shipments. Other cargo frequently involved in accidents includes radiography or well-logging sources, low specific activity materials, and radiopharmaceuticals. The number of actual releases of radioactive materials was very low, and the amount of material released did not present a major public health problem.
Numerous cases of suspected releases occur each year. Studies conducted by the United States Department of Energy show that many of these false alarms result from minor damage to the outer shipping container, wet packages resulting from rain or snow, liquid leaking from closed trailers, and erroneous (survey) meter readings.
Accidents also occur during handling—296 accidents worldwide from 1944 to 1988, according to the Radiation Accident Registry DOEREAC/TS. Nine of them occurred in the United States. These incidents resulted in the deaths of 69 people worldwide.
Accidents that receive widespread media attention are those involving nuclear reactors. The accident at Three Mile Island in 1979 affected 600,000 people in a 20-mile radius, covering 1,257 square miles and six counties. It raised public consciousness to the need for integrated local, state, and federal radiation emergency planning.
The Chernobyl accident in April 1986 affected 135,000 people. Of the 1 1 5,000 people evacuated from the area, 24,000 were estimated to have received an average radiation dose of 43 rem (“roentgen equivalent man,” or the radiation dose absorbed by humans), according to the article “The Global Impact of the Chernobyl Reactor Accident” (Science; December 16, 1988). The National Council of Radiation Protection and the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission set exposure limits for the general public of 0.5 rem per year and for occupationally exposed individuals, 5 rem per year. Emergency workers are limited to a one-time exposure of 25 rem. There were 237 cases of acute radiation sickness and 31 deaths as a result of this accident.
The major global impact of Chernobyl appears to be economic and social, the article continues. Public concerns about radiation and nuclear power—whether justified or not — have increased, drawing attention from medical, public health, and other authorities.
THE TRAINING MANDATE
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania recognizes that all emergency response personnel must have the basic capacity to respond to a radiation accident. Its Hazardous Materials Emergency Planning and Response Act mandates the establishment of training standards and certification of members of hazardous-materials response teams. The Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency (PEMA), in its Radiological Protection Program Training Requirements, establishes the required training for the Pennsylvania Radiological Protection Program. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration, in 20 CFR part 1910.120, establishes the need for training emergency response personnel to deal with hazardous-materials incidents.
Radioactive materials are continually advancing in their scientific sophistication and complexity of use. Training for response individuals who may come in contact with such materials is necessary for their safety and that of the accident victims.
TRAINING OBJECTIVES
The keys to effective emergency response in a radiation accident are preplanning and adequate knowledge and skill. Much of the knowledge and skill is gained from classroom learning and exercises.
The purpose of classroom sessions and participation in mock radiation emergency exercises is threefold. It provides a basic understanding of radiation to dispel fear of the unknown, it imparts the knowledge and skills necessary for self-protection and the protection of others during a radiation accident, and it conditions individuals to make appropriate decisions under stress. Straight teaching usually precedes live drills. Classroom training may vary in length from comprehensive to short review sessions.
Radiological emergency response groups can be categorized as follows: first responders, hazardous-materials response teams, hospital emergency room personnel and planners, decision makers, and coordinators. Each group requires different education and experience. However, there are common subjects covered in each group’s classroom training. They include:
- The basic principles of atomic
- structure and radiation.
- The risks of radiation hazards, radiation effects on the human body, radiation protection limits, and radiation exposure measurement.
- Radiation units of measurement.
- The hazards of internal radiation, sources of internal radiation exposure, and means of preventing internal radiation hazards.
- The sources and nature of potential radiation accidents, and potential environmental radiation levels from different accidents.
- How to survey people and equipment to check for radioactive decontamination.
- The principles of contamination control and methods of decontamination.
- Rescue and first aid in radiation accidents.
- The need for and principles of planning.
- Sources of available assistance.
- The concerns of accident victims and the public about radiation and how to deal with those concerns.
First responders—local police, firefighters, and emergency medical personnel—require sufficient training to understand ionizing radiation, sources of radiation, and the biological effects of exposure to radiation. They should be capable of selecting and using proper radiation detection equipment. Finally, they should be able to take accurate initial protective actions in a radiological emergency.
Hazardous-materials response team members require sufficient in-depth training to understand the fundamentals of radiation and its effects, radiological hazard assessment, initial protective actions, selection and use of radiological monitoring equipment, contamination control and decontamination procedures, and sources of assistance.
Hospital emergency room personnel require introductory training on procedures used in the management of the radiation accident victim in order to provide prompt and appropriate care while minimizing exposure and preventing the spread of radioactive contamination.
Planners, decision makers, and coordinators require training in eight essential areas: leadership, plans, facilities, instruments, personnel, training, communications, and tests and exercises.
AVAILABLE TRAINING
The Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency conducts the FEMA nonresident courses in Pennsylvania. Here is a sample of the courses it offers: Radiological Monitors Course, Fundamentals Course for Radiological Response Teams, Response to Fixed Nuclear Reactor Accidents, and Radiological Response for EMS Personnel.
FEMA conducts resident courses at its Emmitsburg training center, at Oak Ridge University, and at the Nevada nuclear test facility. They are designed to train responders for nuclear power plant and transportation emergencies and radiological preparedness. Courses include Federal Emergency Response Plan Workshop; Radiological Preparedness Workshop, and Radiological Accident Assessment.
INNOVATIVE TRAINING TECHNIQUES
Conventional courses or seminars may not always be convenient or costeffective as a training method. The following are examples of nontraditional, innovative teaching methodologies:
Telecourses via satellite. FEMA’s Emergency Education Network (EENET) provides educational programs to the emergency response community. In June 1989 it conducted, in conjunction with other federal agencies involved with radioactive materials, a two-day video conference—“First Response to Transportation Emergencies Involving Radioactive Materials.” Courses such as this can provide training to a large number of individuals at the same time. The event was videotaped so it could be used continually to train new individuals.
These programs are lengthy and interactive. To be most effective as a teaching aid, the material should be carefully reviewed and edited into smaller units on specific topics.
Public sector-produced material. Various government agencies involved with radioactive materials have developed training programs in slide and videotape formats. Agencies include the Department of Energy, the Department of Transportation, and the Department of Health and Human Services. These materials can be acquired at little or no cost and can be used for in-house training programs. Programs include Radiation Fundamentals for Emergency Managers, Prehospital Response to Radiation Accidents, and Fundamentals Course for Radiological Monitors.
Industry> or commercially produced material. Electric utilities that use nuclear reactors to generate power have developed training materials on radiation and emergency response. Private-sector companies specializing in providing training materials to the nuclear industry are another source of educational material.
Computer-aided learning programs. A new and fast-growing source of training is computer-aided learning programs. FEMA currently is developing a learning package on the fundamentals of radiation.
Exercises. An exercise is a valuable training tool. Whether tabletop, functional, or field exercises, they can demonstrate concepts and principles, increase familiarization with equipment and procedures, and allow participants to practice what they have learned. FEMA has developed the computer program CADET (Computer-Aided Design for Exercise Training). It is a sophisticated yet easy-touse exercise design tool.
To be effective, an exercise needs to be thoroughly planned. Detailed planning means writing the script for the exercise and designating simulated accidental concerns as well as anticipated actions by participants. It is important to keep the scenario simple. In addition to the exercise plan, develop a safety plan that considers the exercise’s potential hazards.
