By Jack J. Murphy and Jerry Tracy
Fire departments that lack viable building intelligence of their district and, most importantly, their structures are putting firefighters and occupants in harm’s way. All too often, personnel are working off little or no information of a building to support operations during fires or all-hazard emergencies. Be prepared for worst-case scenarios so as not to be overwhelmed by circumstances or caught off guard with the unexpected. All-hazard emergencies are like engaging in a skirmish that may be life threating, challenging our effort to protect occupants’ life safety.
- Fire Service Recon of High-Rise Building Construction Sites
- Response to High-Rise Buildings Under Construction
- What Firefighters Need to Know About High-Rise Building Systems
- ‘Sick’ High-Rise Buildings Undergoing Alterations
Departments that have their preincident plans on paper or in an outdated critical information data system (acronym-based program) with insufficient building knowledge are, in effect, going into “battle” as if operating blind. These blind spots are gaps in critical details about a structure. The need for building intelligence, especially for high-rise structures, is much greater than the battlespaces in a one- or two-family home. It is incomprehensible that many departments are satisfied with the status quo, relying on what cursory intelligence they have in their data systems and not realizing they are placing trust and cognitive decision making in blind spots of building data.
Book: High-Rise Buildings: Understanding the Vertical Challenges
Consider this in the heat of battle: A team of firefighters arrives first to a high-rise building and is assigned the duties of search, suppression, or other vital tasks for what has the potential to be a significant fire or all-hazard emergency, with the lack of critical intelligence and details of the building. The details would include its features; fire protection and building systems; and means of travel to areas below grade and the upper floors to reach occupants, whose lives may be threatened. This is not the time to be confronted with the reality of, “I wish I knew more about this building and where I am going.” It would be a harrowing moment to enter a space for evacuation, search, and rescue and lose your grip on the search rope, realizing you have no idea where the nearest stairwell is to exit and your low-air alarm is sounding.
Now, you must gather your thoughts, stay calm, and consider your options. Do you call out for assistance from a member in the area? With no response, do you transmit a calm report of your plight to Command or call a Mayday?
If you were more familiar with the building and space, your anxiety might not become a serious life safety issue. An incident commander (IC) must always be aware that at any moment in an operation a firefighter may experience a medical episode; become lost and disoriented in thick, toxic smoke; or discover a victim and need assistance with a removal to the nearest exit, fresh air, and aid. Having comprehensive building intelligence at your fingertips is critical to the life safety of the occupants and firefighters. A review of this intelligence beforehand will help you evaluate what resources will be required to perform the many tasks necessary at the scene. These are the minimum assignments and commissions.
You must also take into account the unexpected. How many firefighters will be required to assist in evacuation, especially with those needing assistance? Many individuals may not be considered nonambulatory but have other issues that affect their ability to navigate in a crowd and negotiate stairs. Do you have the resources to support the immediate issue of a fire or emergency and also support a victim recovery or firefighter Mayday? You may require the response and support of mutual-aid personnel. This building intelligence must also be available and accessible to them.
Firefighters may be new at gathering critical building intelligence because they may not know what building features support fire operations. A culture change and mindset are required: The building intelligence of what may become their battleground will be needed for decisions they must make to effect the rescue of building occupants while at times simultaneously suppressing fire. Also, it is a reality that their life is at stake with the lack of this intelligence.
This change in attitude comes with the acceptance of a “Know Before You Go (KbyG) into “Battle” mentality. To help prepare and be ready for battle, ICs, fire officers, and firefighters must have intelligence of a building or complex available to evaluate the potential magnitude of an incident. The fire service must evaluate and ask, “Do I have all the building intelligence applicable at hand, and how best can it be retrieved to be at our fingertips?” In this day and age, with the complexities of new technology in building systems, innovations with elevators, and energy production and storage, firefighters must take the time to appraise the relevance of data they have, which may be deficient because of upgrades in technology and renovations to building systems and space configurations. The intelligence available may reveal the hazards and challenge, but does the static data of preincident planning offer solutions or tactical guidance? That is what “battle planning” is all about. This concept is not only to gather intelligence for familiarity but to consider the scenarios of events (fire/emergencies) of a particular building to determine how to navigate the battlefield; resources (building/fire protection systems) available; and from what launch point (stairs) it will be most expedient to confine, control, or intervene in a fire or emergency. You can also establish evacuation planning in “battle plans” that can coincide with the building’s fire safety plan for evacuation; this would have been reviewed at the onset and development of a battle plan.
Why We Need Building Intelligence
The fire department should perform a risk-based building analysis for firefighter safety, similar to a community risk reduction1 plan to reduce the fire and all-hazard threats pertaining to the fireground. Have a sound building brainpower data program by adopting a KbyG mentality of gathering and distributing relevant building intelligence, especially for the vertical challenges in a high-rise occupancy.
The world of command management at a high-rise event relates to an IC understanding the challenges and complexity of directing and controlling operations from arrival through demobilization for fire and all-hazard threats and the need to establish a command structure for fire control, smoke management, life safety, and mitigation of emergencies. Although the incident command system (ICS) core principles are applied, its structure and staff will expand in an arrangement following what will be characterized as the incident process system (IPS). An ICS identifies the “what and who” of an event, whereas the IPS prescribes the “how and when.”
As the details of the alarm are gathered, offered, and analyzed, the IC will direct and delegate assignments to manage the ICS domains required to supervise and support the scope of operations. Those domains will be formed as command priorities of the event dictate. Information provided to the IC will be the initial briefing from the first unit to arrive and the intimate building intelligence provided by the fire and life safety director (FLSD) or a building intelligence representative (BIR) (photo 1). In addition to the FLSD/BIR, the expertise and guidance of the building engineer will be required for technical assistance with building systems and for smoke management and control. The FLSD/BIR can be the liaison between the IC and the building engineer.
Enhancement of the Command Staff
The typical ICS command staff consists of, first and foremost, a safety officer, public information officer, liaison officer, and a BIR or incident intelligence officer (IIO). High-rise buildings/complexes will require the proficiency of a building engineer, who may be at the side of the IC or may have to stay at the controls of the building systems. Radio communications may have to suffice in that case.
Without question, the FLSD/BIR, property manager, or other responsible person should be on hand to lend expertise to support ongoing operations and life safety. The person’s knowledge of the building/complex will be significant, and he should become a component of the command staff (Figure 1). Assuming the role of BIR, he will not be directly involved in tactical tasks, but his briefings will assist the IC with his deliberations, command decisions, and directions.
(1) A BIR assisting the IC. (Photo courtesy of FDNY Photo Unit.)
Intelligence and assistance from a BIR are pivotal to bolstering the effort for occupant and responder life safety. The FLSD or the building engineer can be designated as the BIR. In the incipient stages of any high-rise emergency, building intelligence and intimate knowledge of the building, its features, and its characteristics will be essential to place firefighting personnel in a position of intervention or mitigation.
On arrival of the first fire officer, the BIR should make himself available to assist this officer in establishing command and what will develop as the foundation of the ICS and formation of the IPS. The responsibility of command will often be transferred to a chief officer assuming IC, who is briefed with the details of the alarm response and the current status of the fire protection systems, HVAC, elevators, occupants if known, and conditions at the location of the event. The investigating unit may still be in transit. The BIR in the interim can also confirm to the IC that announcements have been made informing the occupants of an alarm and what is expected of them during the investigation process.
The IC can determine if and when this interaction with a BIR requires such strict attention that it becomes a distraction from the command duties. The IC may choose to delegate this function to a firefighter or officer as an IIO. This member will be able to glean critical building data from a building intelligence card if available and continue to liaise with the BIR.
This IIO will then ensure that the IC is made aware of any issues with the building’s systems and how they are being addressed. This lessens the IC’s need to be concerned with the function of the building systems. The role of the IIO will be to assume the responsibility of working with the BIR and building engineer as applicable. The IIO will have two responsibilities: (1) be aware/monitor the functioning of the building systems and (2) be a problem solver when any part of the system does not function as expected.
After having reviewed the building intelligence card to become familiar with the building and fire protections systems, the IIO will make note of the names and contact information of those who can provide expert advice on these systems should they fail to function properly. The IIO will continue to monitor the fire alarm control panel and the status of fire protection and building systems.
Cooperation with the BIR will be essential to a planning officer. The status of the fire and smoke conditions in the building impacts the life safety of occupants in the building and members operating, and that becomes the focus and priority. The planning officer should determine if the resources on hand are sufficient to maintain the current strategy or decide what would be required to support an alternative. A major consideration is to determine what life safety factors affecting the building occupants still remain questionable. Attention would be given to those who require evacuation or relocation to areas of refuge according to the evacuation plan. Has a smoke management plan been initiated and operating? The availability of a BIR and his familiarity with the evacuation plan and building systems may be crucial.
Figure 1. IMS Command Organization Chart
The IMS Command Organization Chart shows the valuable roles the BIR and the IIO can fill for the IC.
Figure 2. Sample Form to Collect Building Data for a Battle Plan
This is a deviation from the typical hierarchy of ICS/NIMS. The addition of a BIR or an IIO to the command staff is profound. The assistance and support are critical to the IC in the early stages of the IPS and the efficiency of operations. The BIR’s extensive knowledge and building intelligence will be a tremendous asset to an IC who must determine the most appropriate strategy and tactics.
The foundation of intelligence will have a building footprint map highlighting the entrances, fire department connections, hydrants, and points of utility supply for quick reference. This building intelligence also notes the topography of the land or site surrounding these structures and other structures attached or in close proximity. The intelligence gathering also needs to consider apparatus placement for the application of master streams directed onto the exterior of the building when and if fire extension through autoexposure becomes an issue or the fire rating or susceptibility of cladding (façade) becoming involved in fire is in question. Master streams may be required if the volume and extent of fire have involved an area beyond the capability of handlines. This tactic has been implemented at numerous large-scale high-rise fires over the years such as in Chicago, at the Cook County Administration building at 69 Washington Street on October 17, 20032; and in New York City in 1993 at 280 Park Avenue in the Bankers Trust building on the night of the Super Bowl.3
High-rise buildings, especially in the super- and mega-tall categories, exacerbate the challenge to life safety because much of the building may be well above the reach of fire apparatus and appliances. These sky-high structures should have in-building relocation floors, spaces, and areas that may be designed as refuge areas. It is important for the IC to have this building intelligence so that it can be confirmed that any occupants who have relocated to these areas are safe. It can also be ascertained how many individuals are staged at these locations to determine the accountability of any remaining or unaccounted-for occupants. The IIO and the BIR can confirm this to aid the IC.
Command Use of Building Intelligence
The significance of having prior knowledge of the battleground (building intelligence) available to fire service members is profound. We are duty-bound to gather and disseminate this intelligence so that we are armed and prepared to provide emergency mitigation and fire extinguishment.
During the 20th century, the fire service was haphazard in its methods of gathering and disseminating preincident plans for buildings, and the means to access and introduce the data was antiquated. Fire Department of New York (FDNY) Fire Commissioner John James McElligott (circa 1940) was concerned with the dangers of hotel fires based on his experience as a seasoned fire officer. In the FDNY’s Manual of Instruction, McElligott noted, “Officers working in districts where these conditions are likely to arise should endeavor to become familiar with the buildings in their respective districts, anticipate the conditions which are likely to arise, and form predetermined plans of action to serve them as guides when an actual condition presents itself to them.”4
As the fire service progressed into the 21st century, although recordkeeping and retrieval technology have improved to provide communications of digital data on mobile data terminals in responding apparatus, chief’s vehicles, and communication centers, many departments are still functioning with static building information that was entered into a database years ago.
The Vertical Challenge of Occupancy Types
Fire service statistics show that firefighters respond to more fires in high-rise residential occupancies than other tall buildings occupied as businesses/offices, hotels, institutions (education, hospitals), and mixed-use occupancies. However, each of these building uses poses unique challenges. Various occupancies will require strategies and tactics that differ from an approach for a large open floor plan to that of a more compartmentalized fire setting such as those in high-rise residential occupancies.
Relationships and a bond of respect, understanding, and cooperation should be established between the fire service and building owners, property management teams, and the building fire and life safety personnel. The cooperation and building intelligence they provide will also be the foundation to develop battle plans beforehand that will assist the first-arriving units and the IC.
Development of Battle Plans for Buildings
To develop battle plans, the local fire company should perform a KbyG recon survey to gather specific building details that will become a retrievable electronic building intelligence card. Preface this visit with a letter of introduction and request to meet with the owner, managing agent, responsible person, or fire and life safety representative to form a relationship of understanding, cooperation, and respect.
You may not be able to complete a building reconnaissance survey in one visit to collect all the relevant building intelligence and diagrams you need to prepare battle plans. Units in busy urban districts may have to plan additional visits.
Fire companies should use a simple form (Figure 2), brochure, or checklist of annotations and details of a building for what will become a legacy document or database for electronic retrieval. A building footprint map with its configuration, surrounding streets, and other buildings provides the template. The intent is to gather all relevant building intelligence and diagrams that provide a rapid review of the characteristics of a building, its arrangement in relation to the core, modes of transportation (stairs/elevators), standpipe risers, fire walls, utilities, and location of the HVAC return air damper and shaft. More detailed data and diagrams may be needed for below-grade areas, mechanical equipment rooms, and other unique spaces such as battery storage areas and systems.
(2) This battle plan highlights the vertical risers (top of the page) for stairs, elevator banks, HVAC systems, occupancy floor load, and indoor floor maps and the indoor floor map for the quadrant sectors A, B, C, and D (bottom of the page). (Graphic by Jerry Tracy.)
Smart Battle Plans
A step beyond preincident planning is smart battle plans that, in addition to building characteristics, include tactical strategies based on the level of fire and smoke conditions for a particular office floor, area/space, hotel, or residential apartment building. Battle plans can be accessed through the Internet of Things, providing building data detailing the building footprint map; a visual display of the vertical risers (photo 2, top) for stairwells, elevator banks, HVAC system, floor occupancy/loads, and indoor floor mapping; and other building characteristics highlighting building and fire protections systems, hazmat locations, and emergency contacts.
The indoor floor mapping diagram (photo 2, bottom) can be divided into quadrants beginning with the letter A/Alpha (the lower left of the main entry point of the building) and proceeding clockwise to the upper left the B/Bravo quadrant (upper left), the C/Charlie quadrant (upper right), and the D/Delta quadrant (lower right). For buildings that are short in depth and wide in length (common in residential apartments), refer to the front of the building as side A, left side as side B, and so on clockwise around the building. Reports of a fire observed would be transmitted as, for example, “Fire showing on the top floor side A, four windows from side B of the building.” The side of a building would be the identifying factor of the observation and further identify if it was center to side A or off center and in which direction. That would be the direction of side B or side D of the building.
The reasoning behind identifying quadrants and sides (exposures) of the structure is to determine the closest and most expedient launch point of access to begin an investigation, tactic for suppression, or search for rescue. Noting other access/egress points and modes of travel (stairs/elevators/horizontal exits) can be incorporated into the tactical options of a battle plan—again, based on the level of fire and smoke conditions.
Battle Plans
How many times has it been said, “I wish I had known about this beforehand,” or “I would appreciate some advice on what I should be considering right now”? Both indicate the deficit of not having enough intel at the very moment you need it on the fireground or the availability of a BIR. Battle plans are a way to improve our evaluation of situations and provide insight of what we can expect, what we can do about it, and other options we may not have considered.
Battle plans link building intelligence to existing standard operating procedures (SOPs) with the specific building details. The foundation of these plans can use the information acquired that will be enhanced further with diagrams of the building with a base building footprint map (i.e., street level lobby), access points, and exposure buildings. The battle plan will be provided on printed pages that are turned up (layers) to reveal additional details and diagrams of floors, atypical spaces/floor layouts, access points (stairs), and core area to exterior walls. The intent of battle planning and use of diagrams is to expedite the time to implement appropriate plans of action and tactical decisions and approach for fire extinguishment on specific floors or spaces. The commitment of resources and tactics to employ can be determined according to the level of fire/smoke/tenability conditions encountered on a floor or space (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Levels of Fire/Smoke/Tenability Conditions
Providing the IC with the condition levels will help him ensure the tactics match the level of conditions encountered.
Existing SOPs may not provide the intimate details of the building, floor, or space to make resolute decisions with accurate building intelligence rather than speculation or guess-based knowledge. Our guess may be an educated one, yet this is not conclusive to rapidly determine a tactic or alternative with minimal intelligence that is often inaccurate.
Command Post Building Intelligence and Battle Plans
The fire service today needs to rethink current SOPs regarding building preparedness (preincident plans) to reveal those critical building data blind spots or the lack of data, especially for the multitude of vertical challenges within tall buildings, especially multiuse complexes with different high-rise occupancies. Adopting a battle-ready intelligence KbyG mentality will prove to be a game changer in preparedness, affirming strategies, and facilitating tactical decision making. Technology associated with smart battle planning will incorporate various methods and means to push out this intelligence in the form of fire alarm and dispatch alerts, mobile computers, and electronic data and workstations at the fire alarm control panel or fire command center. It may be possible with authorization to access electronically the status of the fire protection and building systems with the intel while in transit and on arrival. That is a feature the fire service must explore to enhance our posture with battle-ready intelligence.
References
1. NFPA 1300, Standard on Community Risk Assessment and Community Risk Reduction Plan Development. Cook County Administration building at 69 Washington street. https://www.nist.gov/publications/cook-county-administration-building-fire-69-west-washington-chicago-illinois-october-17 .
2. U.S. Fire Administration/Technical Report Series, New York City Bank Building Fire: Compartmentation vs. Sprinklers. USFA-TR-071/January 1993.
4. Fire Department of New York City, “Hotel Fires,” in Lowell M. Limpus, ed., The New York Fire Department Manual of Instruction (New York: Dutton and Company, 1940), 85.
Jack J. Murphy, MA, is a fire marshal (ret.) and a former deputy chief of the Leonia (NJ) Fire Depaertment and a former Bergen County deputy fire coordinator. He is the past chairman of the Fire/Life Safety Directors Association of Greater New York. He is a member of the NFPA High-Rise Building Safety Advisory, 1620 Pre-Incident Planning, and 1082 Facilities Fire and Life Safety Director Professional Qualifications committees and a representative on the ICC Fire Code Action Committee. In 1997, Murphy was appointed an honorary FDNY battalion chief. He is the author of many fire service articles and the Pre-Incident Planning chapter in Fire Engineering’s Handbook for Firefighter I and II. He is a co-author of Bridging the Gap: Fire Safety and Green Buildings and High-Rise Buildings–Understanding the Vertical Challenges. He is a member of the Clarion Fire and Rescue Group Advisory Board and a presenter at FDIC International. In 2012, he was the recipient of the Fire Engineering Tom Brennan Lifetime Achievement Award.
Jerry Tracy retired from the Fire Department of New York (FDNY) as a battalion chief after a tenure of more than 30 years. His assignments included the following: firefighter in Engine 90 in the Bronx and Ladder 108 in Williamsburg Brooklyn; lieutenant of Ladder 4 in midtown Manhattan; and captain of Tower Ladder 35 on the Upper West Side. He formed and became the first captain of Squad 18, a special operations unit and the only squad company in Manhattan. He developed numerous training programs and revised FDNY firefighting policies and procedures. He has had published numerous articles in industry periodicals including Fire Engineering and WNYF. He was the catalyst in the research conducted by NIST, UL, and NYU Polytechnic Institute on smoke management and fire behavior in high-rise buildings, most specifically wind-driven fires. He was a keynote speaker at FDIC 2017 and the recipient of the 2016 Fire Engineering Tom Brennan Lifetime Achievement Award.
