By Katie Sambrooks and Nichola Tyler
Deliberate firesetting represents a significant problem for society in terms of its impact on public health, safety, cost to the economy, and strain on emergency services. Deliberately set fires currently account for just under half of all fires attended by the fire and rescue service in England.1 There has been an observed increase in deliberate firesetting with the number of incidents in England rising 17 percent since 2012-2013 to around 80,758 per year.2 Correspondingly, there has been a 21 percent increase in fatalities and a 16 percent increase in casualties resulting from deliberately set fires in the past year, highlighting the significant impact this behavior has on public health and well-being.3 Deliberate firesetting is not a problem unique to the United Kingdom, with large numbers of incidents reported internationally. For example, in the Netherlands, 20 percent of all the registered fires in 2011 were set deliberately.4 Further, in the United States, approximately 261,330 deliberately set fires are attended every year, resulting in 440 deaths, 1,310 injuries, and US $1 billion in property damage.5 Meanwhile, in Australia, there were 44,925 incidents of arson in 2011, which resulted in an estimated cost of AU $2.3 billion.6 These figures emphasize that deliberate firesetting is a wide-ranging and persistent issue that needs addressing as a matter of urgency.
Who Sets Deliberate Fires?
Children and adolescents have been reported to be responsible for a large number of deliberately set fires.7 However, adults are also responsible for a significant proportion of firesetting incidents. In the United Kingdom, more than 80 percent of arson cases brought before the courts in 2013 were for fires set by adults.8 Similarly, in the United States, adults accounted for approximately 66 percent of arrests for arson in 2014. (5) Because of the underreporting and poor detection rates for firesetting relative to other crimes,9 these figures are likely to represent only the tip of the iceberg. As a result, the majority of adult firesetters remain in the community unidentified. Given the significant proportion of deliberate fires set by adults, it is critical that prevention and intervention initiatives for deliberate firesetting target both adults and young people.
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Youth Firesetting and Intellectual Disabilities
Juvenile Firesetting Prevention: Building Coalitions
Since recorded rates of deliberate firesetting are likely to underrepresent the extent of the issue, recent research has attempted to establish the prevalence rates of unidentified deliberate firesetters (i.e., individuals who report having set a deliberate fire but have never been detected by the authorities) among community samples in both the United States and the United Kingdom. In the United States, the National Epidemiological Survey of Alcohol and other Related Conditions (NESARC)10, 11 found that 1 percent of U.S. adults reported having deliberately set a fire in their lifetime and that 38 percent of these individuals had set a fire past the age of 15 years. Based on national population statistics, this would equate to approximately one million adults in the United States with a history of firesetting post 15 years of age.12 In the United Kingdom, research has found that between 11 percent and 17.8 percent of adults in the community ages 18 to 72 years report having deliberately set a fire since the age of 10 to annoy other people, to relieve boredom, to create excitement, for insurance purposes, as a result of peer pressure, or to get rid of evidence.13-15 This rate was found to increase to 25 percent in young adults between ages 18 and 23; more importantly, 57 percent of these individuals reported that they had engaged in repeat firesetting, and 35 percent reported that they had continued to ignite fires as an adult (i.e., over the age of 18).16 These findings highlight that, in addition to the large number of adults and young people who are detected for deliberate firesetting, an even larger number remain unidentified in the community, emphasizing the urgent need for appropriately targeted prevention and intervention initiatives for this group.
Interventions for Adult Firesetting: Something New
Despite the significant problem adult deliberate firesetting represents, there is a distinct lack of interventions specifically aimed at this group internationally.17, 18 The fire and rescue service currently provides the majority of prevention and intervention initiatives targeting firesetting behavior. These initiatives are predominantly targeted at young people and adolescents and typically follow an educational approach, with a focus on the dangers and consequences of fire.18, 19 In light of the proportion of deliberate fires that adults are responsible for, it is critical that key stakeholders work together to tackle this serious and interminable problem. Given the knowledge and expertise the fire and rescue service have in the area of fire prevention and fire safety education, collaboration with fire safety officers and firesetter intervention teams is key to addressing adult perpetrated deliberate firesetting and its serious impacts.
To successfully reduce the recurrence and widespread effects of deliberate firesetting, a new two-pronged approach that effectively targets adults and young people is needed. First, given what we know about unidentified firesetters, prevention efforts should be aimed at adolescents and young adults. Second, interventions are needed for adults and young people who have been apprehended for firesetting. This requires addressing the gap in provision for adult firesetters. To meet this urgent need, the University of Kent and Kent and Medway NHS and Social Care Partnership Trust (KMPT) have developed two specialist psychological treatment programs for adults residing in prisons or mental health facilities that directly target firesetting behavior: The Fire-setting Intervention Program for Prisoners (FIPP)20 and The Fire-setting Intervention Program for Mentally Disordered Offenders (FIP-MO).21
About FIPP and FIP-MO
The FIPP and FIP-MO are semistructured interventions that are typically led by psychologists in collaboration with the fire and rescue service. Both programs consist of 28 weekly sessions two hours in length, with accompanying individual sessions. The FIPP and FIP-MO aim to reduce the key psychological factors associated with deliberate firesetting while also helping firesetters to develop skills to lead a meaningful life that is free from offending. The FIPP and FIP-MO programs achieve this through assisting firesetters to understand their offending by exploring the factors leading up to and surrounding their firesetting and examining any attitudes or beliefs that they hold that may support their firesetting behavior (e.g., believing that fire is controllable).
Specific sessions are dedicated to examining inappropriate interest in fire and how to manage any urges to set fires as well as understanding the links between early experiences of fire and developing a preference to use fire. The programs also help firesetters to develop skills to cope with life stressors and strong emotions, alongside building self-esteem and communication skills. In addition to this, research has shown that firesetters have less fire safety knowledge compared to nonfiresetting offenders.22 Consequently, a further key objective within the FIPP and FIP-MO is to increase fire safety awareness among adults who have set deliberate fires. The fire and rescue service plays a vital role in achieving this by delivering dedicated fire safety education sessions as part of the programs, exploring key concepts such as the fire triangle, the unpredictability of fire, and the unintended consequences of firesetting. These sessions are positively received by both the adults in the programs and the psychologists facilitating them; regular positive feedback is received about the invaluable contribution the fire and rescue service makes to these interventions through their resources and personal experiences.
The FIPP and FIP-MO have been implemented across mental health services and correctional settings internationally, with professionals from more than 13 countries formally trained in delivering the programs including from across Australasia, North America, Europe, and Asia.
Both programs have been shown to be effective in reducing key deficits associated with firesetting in mentally unwell and imprisoned firesetters, including reducing individuals’ interest in fire and improving their fire safety awareness.23, 24 Further, research has shown that these improvements are maintained three months after completing the programs. (23) Firesetters who complete the programs also reported that they feel they benefitted from the programs, particularly in increasing their understanding about fires and how they spread, as well as learned about the potential impact of fires on others. (24) These results emphasize the importance and successful outcomes of collaborative working between psychologists and the fire and rescue service in tackling the issue of deliberate firesetting.
Workshops
Given the urgent need for prevention and intervention work aimed at adults who set deliberate fires, the University of Kent has developed specialist training workshops for the fire and rescue service on understanding and working with this population. The British Psychological Society has approved the training for the purpose of continuing professional development. The training provides fire and rescue service personnel with the opportunity to learn about adults who deliberately set fires and how we can develop effective prevention and intervention initiatives to target this behavior. The characteristics and motivations of both apprehended firesetters (e.g., those held in prisons and mental health facilities) as well as those who have not come to the attention of the authorities are explored alongside explanations as to why adults may engage in deliberate firesetting and how this can inform how and where the fire and rescue service can focus prevention and intervention strategies. For example, the workshop examines key factors unidentified firesetters say would have reduced the likelihood of their setting fires. In addition, the training covers practical guidance for fire and rescue service personnel on working with adults within secure settings and how they can collaborate on providing the fire safety input to the FIPP and FIP-MO programs. A partnership service is also provided following the training to assist the fire and rescue service to establish partner links with other professionals and services working in the area, to help develop ongoing collaborations to address the significant public health issue deliberate firesetting represents.
We offer this training internationally. Additional information on the program is at https://www.kent.ac.uk/psychology/fipmo or email fipmoprogramme@kent.ac.uk.
References
1. Arson Prevention Forum. State of the Nation Report. 2017. Available from: http://stoparson.org/arson.
2. Home Office. FIRE0401: Deliberate fires attended by the Fire and Rescue Services. 2018. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/fire-statistics-data-tables.
3. Home Office. FIRE0402: Fatalities and non-fatal casualties in deliberate fires attended. 2018. Available from https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/fire-statistics-data-tables.
4. Statistics Netherlands. Brandweerstatistiek 2011 [Fire department statistics 2011]. Hardinxveld-Giessen01dam: Tuijtel; 2012.
5. Campbell R. Intentional Fires. National Fire Protection Association. 2017. Available from: http://www.nfpa.org/news-and-research/fire-statistics-and-reports/firestatistics/fire-causes/arson-and-juvenile-firesetting/intentional-fires.
6. Smith RG, Jorna P, Sweeney J, Fuller G. Counting the costs of crime in Australia: A 2011 estimate. AIC Reports – Research and Public Policy Series. 2014;129:1-103.
7. Lambie I, McCardle S, Coleman R. Where there’s smoke there’s fire: Fire setting behaviour in children and adolescents. New Zealand Journal of Psychology. 2002;31(2):73-78.
8. Ministry of Justice. Freedom of Information Request: REF 237-15 FoI 97457. Justice Statistics Analytical Services. 2017.
9. Smith K, Taylor P, Elkin, M. Crimes detected in England and Wales 2012/13. Home Office Statistical Bulletin. 2013;2:13.
10. Blanco C, Alegria AA, Petry NM, Grant J, Simpson HB, Liu SM, et al. Prevalence and correlates of fire setting in the US: Results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions (NESARC). The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2010;71(9):1218-1225. Available from doi: 10.4088/JCP.08m04812gry.
11. Vaughn MG, Fu Q, DeLisi M, Wright JP, Beaver KM, Perron BE, et al. Prevalence and correlates of fire-setting in the United States: Results from the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Comprehensive Psychiatry. 2010;51(3):217-223. Available from: doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2009.06.002.
12. Dickens G, Sugarman P. Adult fire setters: Prevalence, characteristics and psychopathology. In: Dickens GL, Sugarman PA, Gannon TA (eds.). Fire setting and Mental Health. London: RCPsych Publications; 2012, p.3-28.
13. Barrowcliffe ER, Gannon TA. The characteristics of un-apprehended fire setters living in the UK community. Psychology, Crime & Law. 2015;21(9):836-853. Available from: doi:10.1080/1068316X.2015.1054385.
14. Barrowcliffe ER, Gannon TA. Comparing the psychological characteristics of un-apprehended fire setters and non-fire setters living in the UK. Psychology, Crime, & Law. 2016;22(4):382-404. Available from: doi:10.1080/1068316X.2015.1111365.
15. Gannon TA, Barrowcliffe E. Fire setting in the general population: The development and validation of the Fire Setting and Fire Proclivity Scales. Legal and Criminological Psychology. 2012;17(1):105-122. Available from: doi: 10.1348/135532510X523203.
16. Barrowcliffe ER. The prevalence and psychological characteristics of un-apprehended deliberate fire setters living in the UK. Doctoral dissertation, University of Kent; 2017.
17. Gannon TA, Pina A. Fire setting: Psychopathology, theory and treatment. Aggression and Violent Behavior. 2010;15(3):224-238. Available from: doi:10.1016/j.avb.2010.01.001.
18. Palmer EJ, Caulfield LS, Hollin CR. Evaluation of interventions with arsonists and young fire setters. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister: London; 2005.
19. Pinsonneault IL, Richardson JP, Pinsonneault J. Three models of educational interventions for child and adolescent fire setters. In: Kolko DJ (ed.), Handbook on fire setting in children and youth. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2002, p.261-282.
20. Gannon TA. The Firesetting Intervention Programme for Prisoners. Unpublished Manual. CORE-FP: University of Kent; 2012.
21. Gannon TA & Lockerbie, L. Firesetting Intervention Programme for Mentally Disordered Offenders (FIP-MO) Version 2.0. CORE-FP, University of Kent and Kent Forensic Psychiatry Services, NHS; 2014.
22. Gannon TA, Ó Ciardha C, Barnoux MFL, Tyler N, Mozova K, Alleyne EKA. Male imprisoned fire setters have different characteristics than other imprisoned offenders and require specialist treatment. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes. 2013;76(4):349-364. Available from: doi:10.1521/psyc.2013.76.4.349.
23. Gannon TA, Alleyne E, Butler H, Danby H, Kapoor A, Lovell T, et al. Specialist group therapy for psychological factors associated with firesetting: Evidence of a treatment effect from a non-randomised trial with male prisoners. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2015;73:42-51. Available from: doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2015.07.007.
24. Tyler N, Gannon TA, Lockerbie L, Ó Ciardha C. An evaluation of a specialist fire-setting treatment programme for male and female mentally disordered offenders (the FIP-MO). Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy. 2017;25(3):1-13. Available from: doi :10.1002/cpp.2172.
Katie Sambrooks is a research associate in forensic psychology at the University of Kent and KMPT and has previously worked in a variety of settings conducting research in the field of forensic mental health. She is working on research in the area of adult perpetrated deliberate firesetting, including work that aims to establish the untreated base rate for reoffending in deliberate firesetting.
Nichola Tyler is a lecturer in psychology at the University of Kent. She has authored more than 20 book chapters and journal articles on deliberate firesetting and treatment effectiveness. Her research has focused on examining the characteristics offense process and treatment needs of people with a mental disorder who deliberately set fires. In addition to her academic work, she works clinically as a forensic psychologist in training and has a wealth of experience in assessing and treating men and women who have set fires in prisons and mental health services.
