BY AUGUST VERNON
Today’s criminals and terrorists are more determined and heavily armed than ever before, and crisis situations such as threats, illicit labs, civil unrest, active shooters, barricaded subjects, and hostage takings are occurring with alarming frequency. Increasingly, fire and emergency medical service (EMS) responders are finding themselves drawn into these types of events, many of which cannot be resolved or negotiated peacefully. One important note to remember is that active hate groups and extremists are in all 50 states.
ACTIVE SHOOTINGS
Mass shootings may involve a response to numerous casualties; they may be ongoing on your arrival and may be long-term events. Law enforcement, fire, and EMS personnel all share some of the same priorities during a mass-shooting event. Planning and interagency cooperation should be paramount. Several issues need to be addressed during the planning phase. Law enforcement will need fire and EMS coverage and equipment (vehicles, ladders, breaching tools, fire extinguishers, trauma packs) during the event. EMS may need to provide tactical medics and set up several triage areas away from the scene. Law enforcement will need to provide security and “over watch” for the fire and EMS units entering the “hot zone” or crime scene. There is tremendous need for an immediate coordinated effort among all agencies to ensure a safe and effective response. Responder safety is paramount.
 (1) Tactical team training on CBRNE operations. (Photos by author.) |
One excellent tool to assist public safety agencies in planning for mass shootings is the “Wanton Violence at Columbine High School Technical Report,” available from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.usfa.fema.gov/applications/publications/tr128.cfm. This report is an in-depth analysis of the fire and EMS operations and the overall response to the assault on Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado, on April 20, 1999. Incident command, special operations, and mass-casualty emergency medical services are featured. This report is available at no cost and also comes with a CD-ROM containing audio and video clips compiled by the Jefferson County Sheriff’s Office. The report contains a wealth of information and numerous lessons learned to assist with the planning process.
It is also important to remember that several Al-Qaeda training materials such as the “Encyclopedia Jihad” series and numerous training videos provide specific guidance on the use of firearms for many different missions, including kidnapping, drive-by shootings, and assassinations.
BODY ARMOR
Does your agency provide body armor for responders? Do you have access to body armor in a crisis situation such as a mass shooting or civil unrest in your community? This is a topic of increasing debate among the fire and EMS community. Body armor can be an essential part of a fire and EMS responder’s personal protective equipment (PPE) ensemble. Old “hand-me-downs” from the military and law enforcement agencies may not always be the best choice, as the armor may be severely damaged/worn out, and this practice could also open your agency up to legal actions in the case of some type of incident. Some jurisdictions provide no armor, some provide all staff with armor, and others provide armor to only those fire EMS units that routinely respond to a large number of shootings and stabbings. The cost of body armor can be prohibitive; it starts at around $800 per unit. If your agency is looking into purchasing armor, it is important to do careful research into the topic, as there are numerous types and levels of body armor. For additional information on body armor, see the U.S. Department of Justice Body Armor Safety Initiative at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bvpbasi.
CIVIL UNREST
If there were a report of a violent protest or civil unrest in your community, how would you respond? Can you deal with the numerous medical and fire calls that will occur during this type of event? Acts of civil unrest take place each year across the United States. Annually, firefighters and paramedics have been injured during these situations, some of which may include civil disorders, riots, and protests.
Civil unrest incidents can escalate for a variety of reasons and are not limited to urban areas. They can occur in several situations: peaceful demonstrations that turn confrontational, violence related to major sporting events, concerts and “block parties” that turn violent, political conventions that are disrupted because of activists, confrontations at “hot spots” such as abortion clinics and research laboratories, and riots related to racial tensions. Civil unrest events also have occurred at or near college campuses when sports teams have won or lost critical games. Does your jurisdiction host large or controversial political conventions, conferences, or demonstrations? Past experience at such events as the Free Trade Areas of the Americas, Republican National Convention, Democratic National Convention, G8 Summit, and World Trade Organization and International Monetary Fund meetings have shown the need for preplanning, interagency communications, and coordination.
It is important that fire and EMS agencies meet with local law enforcement to develop agreements concerning police support activities during critical events prior to any incidents. Any civil unrest event has the potential to result in a large increase in fire and medical calls. Law enforcement, fire, and EMS agencies share the same priorities during a critical incident. Planning and interagency cooperation for any event should be paramount. Several of the same issues that arise with mass shooting need to be addressed for these events. Law enforcement, again, will need fire and EMS coverage and must provide security for fire and EMS units entering the “exclusion area” or “hot zone.” Tactical medics and triage areas may need to be provided. The fire department may need to assist in extracting demonstrators that have locked themselves into “protester devices.” There will be a tremendous need for a coordinated effort among all agencies to ensure a safe and effective response. Now is the time to conduct a review of your guidelines and procedures.
One excellent tool to assist in planning/training efforts in reference to civil unrest is the FEMA/National Fire Academy (NFA) “Report of the Joint Fire/Police Task Force on Civil Unrest” at http://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/publications/fa-142.pdf.
ILLICIT LABS
An illicit drug or clandestine laboratory is any laboratory that manufactures illegal controlled drugs or substances. These labs have been found in single- and multiple-family dwellings, motel rooms, campgrounds, mini-storage buildings, and motor vehicles (especially rental trucks). Law enforcement raids on illicit drug labs have the potential to escalate into a hazmat, fire, or EMS response. Increasingly, law enforcement agencies request that fire and EMS assets be available during the thousands of raids that take place across the country annually. Every year first responders are exposed to and injured in these labs. Clandestine labs are not a new problem for first respondersfire magazines have been writing about them since the 1970s. According to the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA), more than 99 percent of labs seized are meth labs. Other illicit drugs like PCP, MDMA, and LSD are also manufactured in clan labs.
 (2) Responders should be able to identify the signs and indicators of a clandestine drug lab. |
One of the problems is meth is very simple and inexpensive to make. Most cooks simply learned formulas from prison or from other cooks or the Internet. These labs can be full of toxic materials and gases, flammable and reactive chemicals, and possible booby traps. Another issue that arises is the fact that one pound of produced meth will generate up to five or more pounds of hazardous waste. As the number of labs in the United States increases, it is important that first responders receive some type of awareness level training so they are able to recognize the components of a lab and call for the proper assistance. Emergency responders in rural areas are increasingly prone to encountering a meth lab operation. In 2004, there were 17,170 clandestine drug lab incidents including labs, dumpsites, and chemical/lab equipment sites across the United States. Remember if you think you have found a lab, get out! For additional information from the DEA such as maps of reported labs and clan lab indicators, see .http://www.dea.gov/concern/amphetamines.html
IED INCIDENTS
How does your agency respond to reports of suspicious packages or events reported to involve improvised explosives devices (IEDs)? Each year across the country, there are dozens of incidents involving actual and suspected IEDs and homemade explosives. When responding to an IED or possible IED event, responders need to become more “tactical” in their thinking. When responding, get all the dispatch information you can. Look at the routes into the event. Survey the scene for a moment. Keep an escape route to get out of the scene quickly. Look at the area where you are parking and staging. Be aware of secondary devices. Several of the public safety agencies involved in the response to the July 7, 2005, attacks in central London, including the London Fire Brigade, had been training for large-scale terrorist attacks since 9/11 and stated that the “training paid off during the July 7 response.”
Several methods of attack and IED construction are described in the Al Qaeda Manual, in terrorist training videos, and on several extremist Web sites and are easily available to anyone with an interest. Any of the numerous means described could be used in the United States during a terrorist attack. The design and implementation of these devices are limited only by the imagination of the bomber. An IED can look like anything. You will need to make several important decisions very quickly at the scene. The National Incident Management System is one of the best tools for agencies to use to deal with these types of events. On notification of an actual or suspected IED, an incident commander should implement the U.S. Military’s “5 Cs Rule”: Confirm there is a device from a safe distance, Clear the area, Cordon off the location, Control all entry and exit points, and Check the immediate area for secondary devices.
The response to an IED can be similar to a hazmat response. Use your “zones of control”: Hot Zonewhere the device is located, Warm Zonewhere the perimeter will be established, and Cold Zonethe location of a unified incident command post and staging. Notify appropriate agencies (fire, EMS, law enforcement, bomb squad, emergency management office, and others as needed) as soon as possible.
Preparation is the key to safely mitigating an IED incident, and that includes having a clear idea of your actions before the incident occurs. The first step in your preparation is providing proper training to all response personnel. This should include an awareness of the hazards associated with IEDs. You can obtain awareness-level training in a few hours. If there is a local bomb squad or hazardous devices unit in your area, ask for its assistance with your training and planning. Most bomb technicians will be glad to provide your agency with training on their procedures and equipment, since they will require your support during an actual incident.
Another excellent training resource for first responders is the Incident Response to Terrorist Bombings course in Soccoro, New Mexico, funded through the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. This course gives first responders information regarding planning for and responding to IED or terrorist events. Students can witness live explosive events ranging from a small pipe bomb to a large car bomb. They then can return to their agency and provide awareness-level training. For additional information, see www.emrtc.nmt.edu.
NIOSH
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program conducts investigations of firefighter line-of-duty deaths to formulate recommendations for preventing future deaths and injuries. NIOSH recently released report FACE-F2004-11, which listed the following recommendations for fire departments responding to scenes of violence:
- Develop standard operating procedures for responding to potentially violent situations.
- Develop integrated emergency communication systems that include the ability to directly relay real-time information between the caller, dispatch, and all responding emergency personnel.
- Provide body armor or bullet-resistant PPE; train on it, and consistently enforce its use when responding to potentially violent situations.
- Ensure all emergency response personnel have the capability for continuous radio contact, and consider providing portable communication equipment that has integrated hands-free capabilities.
- Consider requiring emergency dispatch centers to incorporate the ability to archive location, or individual, historical data and provide pertinent information to responding fire and emergency medical services personnel.
- Develop coordinated response guidelines for violent situations, and hold joint training sessions with law enforcement, mutual aid, and emergency response departments.
OPSEC
Prior to planning for mass shootings, terrorism, and other critical incidents, it is important to think about the information that you will release to the public and the media. For public safety agencies and special operations teams involved in planning and training for such events, it is important that they integrate Operations Security (OPSEC) practices into their planning and training efforts. OPSEC is a five-step risk-management process military and security professionals use to protect unclassified and sensitive information that adversaries could use against responders or their operations. You must protect critical information such as planning and training efforts.
Extremists, terrorists, and organized criminals can take weeks and months to select their targets and plan their operations. To be successful, they need specific information about personnel, response plans, capabilities, and infrastructures. It is important that the responders involved in planning and training for critical events identify and treat their critical information as sensitive so that it does not end up in the wrong hands.
SUICIDE BOMBERS
Every day on television, we see the scenes of chaos and destruction suicide bombers cause in cafes, buses, and streets around the world. It is a very simple and inexpensive process to make a suicide belt or bomb. The suicide bomber has become one of the few remaining ways for terrorists to effectively target their enemies. First responders at all levels must learn to work together to deter suicide bombers from attacking locations in their jurisdictions and to safely respond to an attack.
On July 7, 2005, four coordinated suicide bomber explosions rocked central London during the morning rush hour. More than 50 people were killed, and more than 700 were injured. The blasts occurred in a span of just 30 minutes and were well coordinated. These devices were built from readily available commercial and household chemicals and materials.
It is important for response agencies to plan on how they will respond to a suspected suicide bomber, which could be an individual walking around in a crowded location such as a mall or movie theater. Public safety agencies must also plan on responding to a suicide bomber event. This type of event will have the potential for large numbers of traumatic casualties. Fire EMS responders must be aware of the potential for secondary devices and must never approach a suicide bomber or the remains in this type of response.
SIZE-UP
On arrival at any critical incident, conduct a quick “windshield survey,” even when a scene is said to be “secure.” Obtain as much prearrival information as possible, and listen for key verbal indicators, such as people reporting the location is a high-violence area, shooting or alcohol is involved, crowds are forming, and so on. Typical procedures require that law enforcement is dispatched to any type of incident that has the potential for violence, but you may find yourself on the scene because of a wrong address, victims coming to you, or you happen to discover an incident suddenly.
Any type of violent incident (stabbings, civil unrest, shootings) should raise a red flag for responders to be more aware of what is occurring prior to and during the response. When responding, get all the dispatch information you can. Look at the routes into the event. Survey the scene for a moment. Keep an escape route to get out of the scene quickly. Look at the area where you are parking and staging. Never hesitate to call for law enforcement assistance if you think you may need it.
TACTICAL MEDICINE
One excellent source for protecting responders and the public during a critical incident response is the use of tactical medics. According to the International Tactical EMS Association, “These medical providers can then maintain the wellness of the team’s members and provide immediate medical care to anyone in need, whether they’re law enforcement officers, innocent bystanders, or suspects.” Fire EMS agencies should look at Officer Down and Tactical Medic courses for dealing with these types of situations. These medics have received additional training in multiple subjects such as firearms use, remote site medical care, IEDs, terrorism, preventive medicine, tactics, and ballistic injuries. They have also proven to be a valuable “lifesaver” for military and security teams currently operating in Afghanistan and Iraq.
VBIEDs
In July 2005, the DHS distributed an Information Bulletin that addressed the threat of vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices (VBIEDs). The bulletin states that there is no specific or credible intelligence indicating that terrorist organizations intend to use VBIEDs against U.S homeland targets. However, the growing use and frequency of lethal VBIED incidents overseas is cause for continuing concern. VBIEDs have been proven a favorite and effective mode for terrorists to successfully penetrate a target and create injuries and chaos.
 (3) Responders need to continue training on the current and emerging threats of improvised explosive devices. |
Two notable events that have occurred in the United States were the first World Trade Center bombing in 1993 and the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing. In each case, a rental truck was used to deliver the device to the scene and the bomb was assembled from commercially available materials.
According to the U.S Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, the minimum safe evacuation distance for a small compact sedan loaded with up to 500 pounds of explosives is approximately 1,500 feet. Larger vehicles can require up to 6,000 or 7,000 feet for the minimum safe evacuation distance. Dozens or even hundreds of people may be within that range; you must quickly and safely evacuate them from the “hot zone” if you suspect a VBIED.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
The following textbooks have additional information and guidance on fire EMS response to critical incidents:
• Special Operations for Terrorism and Hazmat Crimes by Chris Hawley, Greg Noll, and Mike Hildebrand (www.redhatpub.com).
• When Violence Erupts: A Survival Guide for Emergency Responders by Dennis Krebs (www.jbpub.com/).
• First Responders Critical Incident Field Guide by August Vernon (www.redhatpub.com).
AUGUST VERNON is an assistant coordinator for a county Office of Emergency Management. Vernon returned to this position after a year in Iraq as a security contractor conducting long-range convoy security operations involved in several IED and combative engagements. Vernon has been in emergency management for eight years and also served as a member of the fire service and a fire service instructor. He also served in the U.S. Army as a chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) operations specialist. Vernon teaches courses in incident management, emergency management, hazmat operations, and terrorism/WMD planning-response. He also provides specialized emergency services planning and training on critical incidents at the local, regional, state, and federal level. Vernon is a member of the IFSTA WMD/Terrorism Committee. He is the author of First Responders Critical Incident Field Guide (Red Hat Publishing, 2009).
