By Michael L. Kuk
Seventy years ago the world was caught in a polarizing intercontinental war that affected every part of daily human life. No one’s country or population was left untouched. The fire service of any locale was caught either in a direct manner, or by collateral action of global war, and life changed quickly for everyone’s firefighters.
In a previous article, Pearl Harbor Firefighters, I wrote about how America’s defenders faced enormous odds that day on an island known as a tropical paradise. During the surprise attack, the United States Army and Navy faced two distinct adversaries. In addition to their direct military action, the enemy also caused widespread fires involving anything that could burn was also.
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Mainland America was shocked, and initially had to listen to radio-based news reports. This was followed by editions of their local newspapers, which allowed them to read and imagine what horrors our troops and the island’s population faced. Many firefighters, after seeing the limited photos of Pearl Harbor’s uncontrolled fires, asked each other: “Are we prepared for war?” Routine fire responses were forever altered for U.S. firefighters on December 7, 1941.
But it wasn’t just America facing new challenges. Soon every country would come to realize how critical their homeland defense was. This was directly related to their fire departments and, of course, their firefighters. Here is a small, but global look, at what occurred to the international fire service during World War II.
The East Coast
To begin with, the color red was pretty much reserved for fire apparatus since motorization, beginning in the early part of the 20th Century. The auto factories of Detroit did not produce red-colored cars like today’s production assembly lines do. Many coastal cities understood that enemy pilots were told to attack red vehicles on the ground at Pearl Harbor, when no other viable target was in sight, so that firefighting defenses could be weakened. Thus, many fire chiefs began wondering if their apparatus fleets should be painted in a different color scheme.
Considering this, New Haven (CT) Fire Chief Paul P. Heinz understood that the coastal cities of America were all going to conduct “blackouts’ every evening until the war’s end. He felt that white apparatus would give his firemen visibility at night, and provide a color that could possibly be overlooked by enemy aircraft. By then, America’s firefighters knew of the devastating nightly bombing raids on London, which produced untold fires and precipitated many line-of-duty deaths for the British fire services.
Heinz also believed that everyone expected attacks on major cities during the night, much like London, and if he left his fleet in their traditional blood red color, they could be daylight targets as well. If he painted the apparatus fleet white, then they would be visible to his firefighters and to traffic in the darkened streets, since all vehicle lighting was to be subdued.
The task of repainting the fire apparatus fleet went to Captain Frederick W. Kaiser, a seasoned firefighter who rose from the ranks to serve in the department’s repair shops. Kaiser was well-liked and respected, as he knew more about New Haven’s Seagrave apparatus than anyone. It was a long and laborious effort on his part. He finally perfected the correct paint mixture, as the initial painting of the apparatus was drying to a strong “gray” color. To this day, New Haven’s fleet remains white.
Throughout his tenure, Chief Heinz was very conscious of safety. It was during this time that he worked with a turnout coat manufacturer to incorporate “safety stripes” in the rubber coats worn by his firemen. Thus, the Midwestern Safety Manufacturing Company of Mackinaw, Illinois was able to mold yellow rubber striping pieces into the sleeves and coat body for a set of horizontal “safety stripes.” They weren’t reflective at that time since that technology had not been invented, but it was a futuristic step towards what we commonly implement in today’s turnout clothing known as “FDNY’ striping. Chief Heinz wanted these stripes to improve his firefighters’ visibility in blackout conditions.
Chief Heinz was also concerned about the extinguishment of any aviation fire if military aircraft would crash land and catch fire. Heinz noted that the military apparatus of that time was using high-pressure fog. He pursued this for his department and ensured that high-pressure water fog was in place. At a minimum, New Haven’s roster had one piece of apparatus per station so equipped.
The Midwest
In the Midwest, concerns troubled even the small farming communities’ fire departments. At the Iowa Firemen’s Association’s (IFA) 65th Annual Convention held at Tipton, Iowa, on September 16, 1942, the minutes of that day reflected some very interesting discussions. Most departments felt the immediate impact from a loss of manpower that their youth provided to each department, as they were going off to war in droves of enlistment.
The Eldora (IA) fire chief stated that his regular membership shrank overnight from 21 to 9 men. He told the assembled delegates that he was going to reach out to the old retired members to fill in until the war was settled, and try to draft unknown community manpower as auxiliaries.
One point that was of grave import to Iowa firefighters was the construction of munitions manufacturing plants in the Midwest. Ammunition, in large bulk commodities, was going to be produced and then transported by the various railroads, which were heavily networked throughout the upper states.
A recent report came up before the IFA committee and it involved a railroad accident. This accident occurred just west of Des Moines, where a fire and explosion took out nine railroad boxcars loaded with war munitions; twelve more were seriously damaged. The firefighter assembly felt that this was just the tip of the iceberg for what these small and mostly volunteer departments would have to deal with in the immediate future.
The conference ended with three main points that each department’s representatives were to take home with them.
The first involved maintaining adequate personnel to staff the fire engines at any hour of the day. Some of the firemen’s wives were going to operate the departments, if needed, when their husbands worked out of town.
The second point drove home the fact that even old and unused fire equipment was to be repaired and restored to operating condition. This gear was placed on the apparatus or a spare vehicle for transport to a major fire or multiple fire incidents that could come from enemy attacks.
The discussion brought out the fact that fire truck manufacturers were not making new fire apparatus for the communities. At the time, much of the companies’ processes were directed toward war production. Even hand-drawn apparatus were pulled out of community maintenance facilities and old barns and readied for reserve use if needed.
A sad fact occurred when the majority of this nation’s rare and treasured steam fire engines were broken apart for their scrap metal content, which was to be used for making brass shell casings and the like. Several historical reviews noted that this action did not contribute true value to the overall war effort. It was done more as a demonstration of the passionate value of sacrifice during the opening days of the war.
The last point focused on advanced firefighting training. With considerable war talk hysteria being in everyone’s daily language, the remaining stateside firemen searched for special training. They wanted to know how to deal with the various types of incendiary bombs.
The military authorities were advising firefighters that the incendiary bombs were usually carried in the first wave of the nighttime raiders. They were not designed to cause direct destruction but rather to start fires. These fires would create illumination from the ground, helping to guide the enemy pilots. The large-capacity bombers could fly in on the light patterns and then drop their bomb loads for maximum destruction.
Keen interest centered on the munitions and incendiary devices, which were causing massive fire conditions in London. No one really knew what destructive limits could be attained by the use of airborne fire attacks coupled with direct hits.
The population of London was terrorized nightly, with large parts of the city going to total ruin and hundreds dying each night. The rest of the world felt the anxiety, too. The Iowa firemen said that with the crushing blow given at Pearl Harbor, and now the Blitz in London, the Midwest was reachable.
The Role of Female Firefighters
As more and more World War II history comes to light, it is noted that women did in fact contribute seriously to the war effort, and their contributions to the fire service were crucial in both America and Europe.
One military fire department in the Midwest garnered a unique distinction with female firefighter. At the U.S. Army’s Ordnance Depot and manufacturing facility, north of Savanna, Illinois, the vast majority of their department was staffed by women until shortly after V-J Day.
The Savanna Ordnance Depot’s Fire Department had 84 paid women on the roster, and only eight men, for a little over four years. Every Ordnance fireman went into one of the various service branches. Most ended up at base camp fire departments, either in the U.S. or abroad, as the war effort required their direct experience as professional firefighters.
The men at Savanna worked 24-hour tours of duty, and bunked in at the fire stations, while the women worked eight-hour shifts. The firewomen, as they were called back then, took their fire engines out on roving patrols and performed constant inspections of the munitions’ assembly lines, storage areas, powder buildings, and railhead transportation facilities. Later on, when a prison was established there for Italian officers, they were also given the duty to maintain both a fire watch of the buildings and a security watch of the fence lines.
Firefighting Abroad
Germany
The German Fire Service experienced one of the most unusual changes in the overall history of the world’s fire services. Both the professional and volunteer fire units of Germany would become directly reportable to the Third Reich.
Heinrich Himmler, the Reichsfuhrer-SS, was made Chef der Deutschen Polizei in 1936. Shortly after his promotion he began a program for the fire service in Germany to make it part of the national police authority. His direction ensured that even the humblest of the German fire departments and their firefighters were to be in line for reporting to his office. A unified governmental function, which included the fire services, was to be a distinct authoritative position at all stations and levels of response. Strict obedience to the Reich was everything in this move to a new front of Germany’s national power.
Prior to the war, Germany had a two-tier firefighting system. The larger towns and major cities had full-time career members whereas the villages and rural areas were protected by volunteers. In 1939, a decision came forth to organize all of the German firefighters into various regiments of Feuerschutzpolizei, which means Fire Protection-Police.
In September 1939, most of the Berufsfeuerwehren, which were full-time career members of the fire service in large towns and cities, were transferred into Feuerschutzpolizei. This move affected 86 urban areas, and a variety of factors (possibility of air raids, enemy border troubles, etc.) suggest that this action was necessary.
The volunteer fire service, traditionally found in the small communities, was also integrated to the police sector. They were held to new standards of order, accountability, and authority.
Surprisingly, the foundation of the Feuerschutzpolizei regiments was an addition to the existing formations of each department. In spite of this new order, many key staff members, operations personnel, and even apparatus were transferred to other locales. This movement actually weakened the local fire protection assets.
This new “police” aspect for the firefighters caused them to be retrained in various police duties. They could then take on tasks of the Gendarmerie and Schutzpolizei if these members were not available. The firefighters were given full police powers, creating an extra level of bureaucratic authority and power for Reichsfuhrer-SS Himmler.
During the early stages of the war, when the German army was advancing and capturing their enemy’s territory in the West, several Feuerschutzpolizei units followed their Army’s Blitzkrieg movement of the main body. There they used their firefighting skills and equipment to extinguish various fires involving military buildings and storage warehouses that had been started by retreating forces.
Even the firefighters’ uniforms took on a new authoritative look. The traditional fire service uniforms were a dark blue with carmine red distinctions and piping, complemented with fire service-style caps and headgear. The new uniforms were very much identical to police-style appearance and fashion. A regular gray-green police uniform was issued and worn. Various police-style insignia and other accoutrements were adopted. Without question, the new look for the German firefighters was of an authority figure.
Above: An assortment of German fire trucks from the era. Photos courtesy of Matthew Moritz.
Up to this point, the German fire engine fleet was painted in red over black colors. This all changed under the Third Reich’s authority.
The new look for the fire apparatus was to sport black fenders and lower body assemblies, with a deep forest green paint job for the main body and upper unit components. The new look was indeed one of unquestionable importance whenever the apparatus came on scene.
Noted German fire apparatus photographer Matthias W. Moritz has researched and photographed vintage WWII equipment in four color schemes. The colorations and hues encompassed the traditional red, the Green over Black Feuerschutzpolizei standard, a dark gray in a powder coat finish, and even a desert tan for the protection of Rommel’s Afrikakorps in the barren sands of Africa.
Of course, female auxiliaries served right alongside their male counterparts in a variety of supporting roles, such as couriers, communications, and supply positions. Their uniforms also had the distinct look of the police authority. The national German police emblem was very visible on the female uniforms. These Feuerschutzpolizei female auxiliaries were given police powers, including select roles, especially for investigations and allied surveillance work.
Topping off the look of the Feuerschutzpolizei was the wearing of sidearms. Officers were permitted and authorized a sword, while the ranks were equipped with a dress bayonet.
Many hundreds of the Feuerschutzpolizei were killed in the line of duty. The horrific firestorms connected with the bombing runs over Dresden gave no one a chance to escape. German firefighters were on the streets even during the bombing runs, trying to save their fellow citizens.
Japan
Crossing over to the Pacific, the Japanese fire service would soon feel the impact from war-related fires, as the United States and its allies came closer to their shoreline to deliver numerous military strikes.
Surprisingly, the country of Japan did not have a very modern fire service. Some of their population depended on unstructured and limited basic fire prevention and firefighting efforts. In many locations, bucket brigades could still be found as a basic fire suppression corps.
Limited assignments of motorized apparatus were found in the larger cities, and there were a few American-built engines that were noted as their most powerful apparatus. In fact, the Japanese firefighters took great pride in having a couple of 750 gpm American LaFrance pumpers on the roster of Tokyo’s Fire Department.
Yet one could easily find hand-drawn and hand-pumped appliances at most fire stations. Small was the keyword here. These pieces of firefighting equipment were in general unsophisticated and limited in their overall delivery of large quantities of water.
The local Japanese firefighters and these pieces of apparatus usually only dealt with small single buildings involved in fire. These structures were constructed of bamboo and wood, with thatch for the roof. Usually a simple water extinguishment assignment handled the vast majority of fires.
As the war began coming towards mainland Japan, American air power started flying huge formations of planes over the island as nearby territories were secured and their airfields were used. These bombers carried massive amounts of both incendiary and high explosive loads. The island of Japan was hit with a destructive wave of fire.
Local Japanese fire departments could do very little when several blocks were in flame after a bomb run. Even before the war began, firefighters in some locations were hard-pressed to have a suitable water supply. When they engaged major fires, many of their communities’ small hydrants could only flow an average of 200 gallons per minute.
Despite the odds, Japanese firefighters fought bravely. Their turnout clothing was little more than simple cotton tunics, shirts, and pants. A majority of their helmets were made of interwoven straw. When they fought fires and encountered high thresholds of heat, their clothing would come alight, especially the helmets.
Like their British counterparts in the London Blitz, they were in the streets fighting fire during the various bombing runs. They had to be, so they could try and stop the incendiary munitions from starting a wave of unified fire, and burn down their living and work areas.
Many Japanese firefighters died in the line of duty, next to their apparatus, when high explosive bombs went off nearby. The Japanese population understood that it was an honor to die for the protection of their country, and their firefighters stood their ground in horrible conditions.
Since lumber and bamboo were the principle materials used for construction in any given area, Japan overall was a very flammable country. Whole neighborhoods quickly went up in flames, and firestorms became the order of the day during the Allies’ incendiary bombing sorties.
One of the most interesting and rarely heard fire stories comes out of the U.S. Navy about that service branch’s efforts towards minimizing transport losses resulting from direct and indirect fires that occurred during enemy attack. Fires could easily ensue from all kinds of conflict.
Shipboard Firefighting
Since large-body aircraft had not yet been perfected and the Navy and the Merchant Marine were the agencies that transported American troops and equipment across the oceans, it only stood to reason that enemy forces were keenly aware of battle flaws in ships.
The Navy well understood the lessons of Pearl Harbor. Fire was still a foe to be reckoned with. Many battles simply demonstrated that resulting fires of any magnitude would not only cause immediate interruption and loss but could actually determine the outcome of warfare.
Early on in America’s entry into WWII, many ships were lost to fires at sea. Torpedoes, the direct shelling of a vessel, and the forthcoming fires fed by fuel oil were three elements that could take out a ship and its cargo. The U.S. Navy took aggressive steps when it came to the mission of firefighting and damage control to save ships.
Naval firefighting schools were initially established at Boston and Norfolk naval yards, and then expanded at other key installations. To save ships, cargo, and troops on the high seas, the Naval Command undertook the mission of basic and advanced education of firefighting and salvage operations techniques for all sailors, including the officer cadre.
The Naval firefighting schools were constructed with actual mock-ups of the various vessels plying the seas. The fires were fuel-oil based and training props were made with particular attention to detail so that these “training” fires were totally authentic.
In fact, the fires were dangerous, and, in most cases, too real. Instructors had to always be on the lookout for any signal of students in trouble, and torrid fire conditions could frighten the novice “firefighters” in an instant. A member trying to leave his crew or dropping a hoseline could lead to panic and result in other members getting into serious trouble.
When one stepped forward to participate in firefighting, their rank went away for the duration. An officer did not know an enlisted member, unless each other had a conversation and the subject came up. This was done to let everyone know that the common enemy here was Old Man Fire, and that all were to “team up” and unite as “Brothers in Battle” to save their ship and their teammates on the open seas.
Several safety measures were built into the training props to prevent runaway fire conditions or events. Several key elements of the best of the technology available of that timeframe were used. Ventilation fans and ducts were in place to draw the atmosphere back to a livable state, while “quick ¼-turn” valves stopped the flow of fuel oil as soon as they were thrown.
Surprisingly, naval personnel did not wear firefighting gear of that era. They basically wore what they would have as their uniform of the day while on sea duty. In most cases, this consisted of a slicker and foul-weather hat. Even the firefighting instructors did not wear traditional turnout clothing.
The firefighting hardware was essentially the Rockwood design fog nozzle in either a 1 1/2 or a 2 ½-inch version. Of course, matching fog applicator wands were also employed to demonstrate that fires could be fought around unusual superstructure features and bulkheads.
Fire foams were still being perfected in a liquid-based concentrate versus the foam powder prevalent on the market at that time. The instructor cadre did break their training routine and test some of the various fire foam concentrates on mockups and props. This was for the purpose of determination towards any brand or mixture, which would be of valuable assistance when it came to suppressing fuel-oil based fires.
Thus, a limited cadre of naval firefighters was trained in some general fire foam applications and attack methods. Each seagoing ship had damage control men assigned. They were tasked with direct firefighting duties within their respective military occupational specialty (MOS).
The various fire schools did not train their captive collections of sailors and seamen in the fire foam discipline, as this was reserved for the future MOS damage-control men. This was noted as a highly technical job skill set. It would be years in the future before “Light-Water” was adopted by the Navy during the Vietnam conflict.
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In the research of this article, I was most fortunate to have the assistance of my former shift leader, retired Assistant Fire Chief Chris Boysen of the Clinton, (IA) Fire Department. Chris is a veteran WWII U.S. Navy firefighting instructor and saw duty at both Boston and Norfolk naval yards. His recollection of his time spent there and his personal photographs were of great value.
One thing he mentioned that captured my undivided attention were the preparations for the invasion of Japan. He told me of what the Navy was going to assemble in terms of firefighting and damage control teams for the final assault. Although the Atomic Bomb brought closure to the war before a final land invasion took place, his mention of this suggest how seriously the Navy anticipated the final actions of war would be.
The U.S. Navy determined that the final stages of battle against the island of Japan would result in heavy casualties and ship losses. Without question, they estimated that large waves of kamikazes would give the Americans their heaviest losses yet to date.
Thus, to counterattack shipborne fires, several smaller vessels of the U.S. fleet were going to have specialized caches of firefighting equipment and critical personnel. A mission-essential and key assembly of naval firefighters and damage-control men were to rapidly deploy to a stricken vessel. These teams were to be led by the naval firefighter instructors from the various schools. They would supervise these unique teams and use their tested elements of training and equipment against whatever fires and ensuing damage was occurring to the ships.
Never had such forethought and preparation gone into the protection of men and ships in a theatre of war. The loss of a ship was considered extremely serious to the Navy and her allied forces. The maintenance of the fleet was of mission-critical importance in holding the necessary battle strength and numbers of all the allied naval vessels for the ultimate stage of war against Japan. Fire at sea had risen to a scale of crippling consequences, much like a direct strike from a torpedo or kamikaze.
Although these events occurred approximately 70 years ago, the transaction of fire as an intercontinental weapon of war continues to this present day. One can find almost daily reports of horrific bombings and related attacks on the civilian and military population of the world.
My research has found that the men and women of the global WWII fire services were focused on protecting their homelands from any destructive wave of fire. They did not distinguish between fires stemming from a military action and those occurring in the everyday, ordinary life of the population, and, despite the incessant threat of bombing, I am sure they would deem their most haunting and consequential enemy to be fire.
ALSO BY MICHAEL L. KUK
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MICHAEL L. KUK, Ph.D., CFO, FABCHS, FIFireE, is the retired chief for the Joint Readiness Training Center and United States Army Garrison at Fort Polk, Louisiana. A United States Army Vietnam veteran, he is chief fire chaplain for the Vernon Parish (LA) Fire Protection District and has more than 50 years of fire service experience and 40 years of chief officer tenure. A lifelong union and master musician, Kuk continues to perform at firefighter, military, and civil ceremonies; he is also the keyboardist and vocalist for several popular area bands.
