The Struggle for Safety
By William Shouldis
Photos by author except where noted
The incident scene is dynamic. Resolving an emergency incident hinges on many facts and factors. Realistic training in an all-hazards environment, continuous case study reviews, and sharing of personal experiences are essential to improving firefighter safety. An accurate on-scene assessment will help all first responders understand the situation during an escalating emergency. An awareness of building features that impact risk to responders is vital. Information on construction types; framing system materials; the detrimental effects of extended burn time on structural stability; and the external forces that act on structural components during hurricanes, earthquakes, and snowstorms are critical to making front-line decisions.
There are four sequential steps that proactive fire service leaders at every rank can take that will easily increase operational capabilities. Strict code enforcement, regular preincident planning, modification of the size of the initial dispatch capabilities, and ongoing scene size-up are minimum requirements for any public safety organization. Each type of structure reacts differently when it faces the furies of nature. Knowledge of how structures are built is the basis on which an incident commander orders resources, selects a strategy, implements tactics, positions apparatus, and uses special equipment. Each type of construction has positive and negative features that can influence operations. Understanding the weaknesses of a building reduces the likelihood of judgment errors that can result in a serious or fatal injury.
(1) Size-up is a continuous process performed by all responders. An effective plan of action is based on life safety and construction concerns. Photo by Jack Wright, Fireman’s Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Click to enlarge
In reality, renovations will take place after a structure is occupied. Buildings eventually become a hybrid of materials. After a few decades, most buildings have become a mixture of structural framing and finishes to meet the occupant’s needs. For first responders, buildings with numerous concealed spaces will create a very dangerous environment.
(2) Mixed construction materials and methods have changed the rules of emergency response. Reading a building takes into consideration wall and floor construction materials. Click to enlarge
The fire service has different ways of classifying buildings. The International Building Code, developed by the International Code Council (ICC), has been adopted in most regions of the United States. Chapter 6 lists the types of construction, and controls the classification of buildings as to type of construction with respect to occupancy and exterior fire separation distance. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) examines general construction categories. The NFPA system can be used to predict how a building most likely will react during a man-made or natural event. With an awareness of the building codes, building materials, and construction techniques, first responders can gain a better understanding of strengths, weaknesses, characteristics, hazards, and collapse potential of various structures.
(3) Contemporary construction features include floor-to-ceiling glass exterior walls. If the glass is removed or fails, it creates a significant hazard. Firefighters can easily fall from the unprotected edge. Click to enlarge
The International Building Code has a general provision that groups combustible and noncombustible buildings. NFPA 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction, addresses building construction and emergency response. History has shown that the type of building construction significantly influences fireground activities. The most commonly used model building codes subdivide construction into five basic types:
Type 1. Fire-resistive.
Type 2. Noncombustible/Limited combustible.
Type 3. Ordinary.
Type 4. Heavy timber.
Type 5. Frame.
The struggle for safety is rooted in an in-depth understanding of each type of building construction.
William Shouldis retired as deputy chief of the Philadelphia (PA) Fire Department, where he served in line and staff positions for more than 34 years. His assignments included working directly for the chief on labor relation and accountability issues and serving as field commander for one-half of the city, department safety officer, director of training, and hazardous material task force leader. He is an instructor at the Graduate School at St. Joseph’s University in Philadelphia (PA), the National Fire Academy, and the Emergency Management Institute. He has a master’s degree in public safety. He can be contacted via e-mail at WShouldis@gmail.com.
Subjects: Building construction awareness for firefighting, fireground decision-making
