Safety: Fireground Injuries—A Closer Examination
DEPARTMENTS
Training Notebook
Fire service managers need to be continually evaluating, investigating, and controlling the many operations of their departments. One category that should be a priority is fireground injuries.
According to National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) statistics, there were 103,340 firefighter injuries in 1981. Of these, 67,510 occurred on the fireground. There are several methods of evaluating the causes and extent of this problem. Time frame data comparison is very helpful. In the last five years, have your fireground injuries increased or decreased? How about during the last three years? The last year? How does the injury rate compare to the incident level? Is there a parallelism? Charts can be prepared for a graphic analysis.
About 95% of the average fire department’s fireground injuries are of a minor to serious nature. I’m referring to firstand second-degree burns, scrapes, muscle injuries, strains, cuts, and the effects of exposures to products of combustion. The other 5% are the critical, traumatic, sometimes fatal injuries. These are caused by explosions, flashovers, backdrafts, electrocutions, and building collapse.
No fire service manager ever wants his company to experience that critical or fatal injury. But it happens. It happened in my department and as a result, improvements were made in firefighter protection (the personal alert safety system—PASS).
When fireground injuries occur, we need to examine all aspects of the incident: the member’s physical fitness record; the protective clothing and equipment used (including breathing apparatus); the amount of training the injured member received prior to the accident; the condition of the structure; construction; unusual conditions; environmental factors (weather, storm, etc.); and probably most important, the strategy and tactics employed during the incident.
CASE STUDIES OF FIREGROUND INJURIES
Case #1
A fire company responded to a single family dwelling. Seventy-five percent of the dwelling had heavy fire involvement. The fire department’s first line was a 1 3/4-inch handline to the front of the structure. During the initial attack, two firefighters’ helmets melted and they received first-degree burns to their ears.
The initial reaction was to assume that the helmets failed. A closer examination of the tactics used determined that the firefighters on the first line placed themselves under the overhang of the structure with the flames directly overhead and waited for the hoseline to be charged. It was during this time frame that the helmets melted and the burns were received.
The conclusion reached was that the helmets performed as specified, they did protect the head area, and the cause of injury was poor tactics. A thorough review of training programs w’ithin the department was instituted.
Case #2
A fire company’s attack on a small commercial structure resulted in firstand second-degree burns to two firefighters.
After the incident, the breakdown of the helmets, turnout coats, and gloves were suspected as the cause. A close examination of the tactics used in this incident revealed that the first hose lines entered the structure from the uninvolved area in an effort to contain and extinguish the fire in the rear, which was excessive. Another line was placed outside and directed into the rear of the structure.
The timing was poor. As the inside line was just getting into position, the outside line was charged, forcing the heat and flames right into the path of the firefighters inside the structure.
Another case of tactical failure, not protective clothing failure.
Case #3
The use of improved protective cloth ing and breathing apparatus may tend to instill a false sense of protective security in firefighting operations.
Three firefighters received firstand second-degree burns to ears and necks during a one-room fire in a concrete structure. The investigation of the accident revealed that firefighters placed a 1 1/2-inch line at the doorway, opened the nozzle, blacked out the fire, and were swept over by a wave of superheated steam. They were wearing their facepieces, but their upper necks and ears were unprotected. They did not operate the hose stream from a crouched-low position, or stay down low in anticipation of steam waves. Again, poor tactics were determined to be the cause of the injuries.
USE OF PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
The three case studies depict tactical failures that resulted in injuries on the fireground. These injuries are the types found in the 95% group.
There has to be a balance between proper use of protective clothing and training. Let’s explore the proper wearing of protective clothing:
The helmet
The helmet should fit securely on the head. Adjustments are possible and should be carefully made to assure a proper fit. The chin strap should always be in place. If ear protectors are attached to the helmet, they should be used, not tucked up in the suspension system. The helmet should be compatible with the SCBA facepiece and facepiece head straps. Proper procedures for donning SCBA facepieces and helmets need to be practiced frequently. Just placing the helmet on the head will not suffice.
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The turnout coat
The turnout coat should be worn with the liner properly in place and all connectors properly fastened. The collar needs to be turned up (making sure that SCBA straps are not placed over the collar). The throat straps must be secured across the opening to keep the collar in an upward position. This will protect most of the head and neck area. If protective hoods are used, they need to be placed over the facepiece and under the turnout coat collar. The hood will do an excellent job of radiant heat protection.
Gloves and wristlets
Protection of the wrists and hands is possible through the use of gloves and wristlets attached either to the turnout coat or to the gloves. The wristlets should not be bunched up at the wrist area. Most firefighting gloves will adequately protect the backs and palms of the hands, but the degree of comfort, dexterity and grip may diminish depending on the type of glove purchased. I favor a glove that offers a good grip and dexterity and a minimum of radiant and conductive heat protection.
Turnout trousers
The turnout trousers also must be worn with the liner attached. The secret to good protective clothing is layers of protection (but not too many layers). The trousers must overlap turnout boots or interface with the boots so that there are no gaps in the protective system.
Boots
If leather safety boots are worn, they must be laced up properly or zipped up all the way, so that proper ankle support is achieved.
SCOPE OF TACTICAL TRAINING
The proper balance of elements is important for total prevention of fireground injuries. When professional athletes fall short of their objectives, they return to the basics.
Your analysis of fireground injuries should include a total scope of fireground tactics. If these are found lacking, review the basics. The following subjects are a must for basic tactics:
- Hose line operation: straight and fog streams, steam development, radiant heat protection, and conservation of available water.
- Hose line placement: uninvolved to involved areas; above ground operations; attic areas and basements; when to place hoselines in windows; protection from steam paths, radiant heat waves, flashovers, and backdrafts; and knowledge of the signs of structural collapse (see FIRE ENGINEERING, January 1984). A prior knowledge of building construction is in itself a comprehensive training program.
- Heavy stream operations: the use of large streams, monitors, ladder pipes, and deck guns may cause the structure to prematurely collapse. When a defensive fire strategy is implemented, all firefighting crews need to be in a safe position. It is possible to blow out windows and non-bearing walls by poorly placed heavy streams. Heavy stream operation has to be well-coordinated by the incident commander and other officers.
- Ground ladder operations: the use and proper placement of ground ladders is important. Electrical hazards need to be addressed. Ladders placed in the path of the fire or at windows where heavy smoke is evident will probably be on fire soon and could expose firefighters. Basic search operations with personal safety and awareness stressed should be instituted. Communication techniques are also a must.
- Aerial ladders and towers: accidents occur by poorly set up and improperly placed aerial ladders and snorkels. Again, electrical hazards need to be observed. A poorly positioned aerial ladder should not be used just because a good spotting location was taken by an engine company. Fireground coordination of engine and ladder operations will reduce injuries.
Firafighter injuries by type of duty (1981 statistics)
Source: National Fire Protection Association’s survey of fire departments for United States fire experience (1981)
This list could go on and on, and there are many subjects of tactical training that I didn’t mention. Important, however, is your evaluation of your training programs. Take a good look.
SUPERVISION ASPECTS
Fire officers are responsible for proper supervision of their crews. We all accept that fact. However, staffing reductions have placed the fire officer in an environment that does not allow 100% supervision. So let’s increase the training effort.
Whatever happened to the salty, senior firefighter who took the rookie by the nape of the neck and led him through a baptism of fire? This lead firefighter is not around today. In most fire departments, the average seniority of firefighters is five to seven years. This factor causes all fire service managers concern (or should), and an immediate program to offset the lack of veteran years of firefighting experience should be developed and implemented.
SOLUTIONS TO CONSIDER
Let’s focus our thoughts on some logical solutions to reduce fireground injuries:
- Investigate the accident thoroughly.
- Carefully examine the protective, clothing used and how it was worn.
- Examine the fireground tactics
- used (avoid the convenient whitewash).
- Develop and implement basic tactical training. Establish feedback procedures that will assure that the program is ongoing, long-range, and not just a crash project.
- Encourage officers and firefighters to discuss fireground tactics using actual incidents as motivators. Chop down the ego and discuss things as they actually happened.
- Encourage “tailboard” training sessions (short, to-the-point training). Immediate, short critiques at the fireground are extremely helpful.
- Remember the firefighter’s safety triangle: physical fitness, protective clothing, and training. Coordinate efforts equally.
