The Model Incident Command System Series Firefighter Casualties
FEATURES
STRATEGY AND TACTICS
This is the sixth in a series of articles on the National Fire Academy’s model incident command system. In this issue, the authors discuss the statistics on, causes of, and safeguards against fire related injuries and deaths.
Tragically, every year firefighters are injured, maimed, or killed in the line of duty. The injuries and deaths take place while responding to, operating at, and returning from incidents; and while engaged in other activities.
Firefighting is an extremely dangerous profession. Each year, following fire prevention week, a memorial service is held on the campus of the National Fire Academy in Emmitsburg, MD. The service is conducted at the fallen firefighters memorial to honor the memory of all firefighters who have died in the line of duty during the previous year.
The incident commander and every officer has a responsibility to know the causes of firefighter injuries and deaths (sometimes needless) and to minimize the risk involved. The prime objective of any fire department is to save lives, reduce injury, and ensure the safety of both civilians and firefighters at the incident scene.
Incident commanders must make quick but well-informed decisions to affect the extinguishment of the fire and the safety of the firefighter” under their command. A study of recent statistics will be beneficial in showing when deaths are taking place and what the causes are. Between 1979 and 1983, a total of 593 firefighters died in the line of duty. The chart on page 30 shows the type of duty they were performing and the cause of their deaths.
FIREFIGHTER DEATHS
A review of the previous five-year statistics shows that the greatest number of deaths took place while firefighters were actively engaged in firefighting activities. The next highest line of duty casualties occurred while responding to or returning from alarms. Stress was the single highest cause of fatal injuries for the five-year period, followed by falls/struck by objects, exposure to fire products, structural collapse, caught/trapped, and others. By analyzing the statistics, we should be able to formulate measures to reduce the number of deaths that are taking place.
STRESS
The stress that a firefighter is exposed to is caused by many factors: the uncertainty of what may be faced when the alarm sounds; the emergency response to the scene that results in increased adrenaline production and blood pressure; the concern for the safety of brother firefighters and citizens involved in the incident; how the firefighters perceive their performance and how that performance will affect others at the scene. The exposure to human suffering imposes an added mental stress, and the tremendous energy that is expanded in a short period of time produces a total-body physical stress.
How do we deal with these factors?
One of the first steps should be to set up a medical program to discover the firefighters who may have problems. Early detection can benefit the firefighter both physically and economically. Annual medical examinations combined with a sound physical fitness program is a must if we are going to save firefighters’ lives. The fitness program should be designed to increase endurance and strengthen the cardiovascular system. A firefighter who is in good physical condition will be able to handle the physical and mental stress of the firefighting environment significantly better than one who is in poor condition.
Another step to take to reduce firefighter injuries and deaths is proper and frequent use of relief personnel. Calling additional units to mop up after a particularly difficult operation should be part of departmental procedures. This not only will relieve fatigued members who would be prone to injury, but it will also allow training of the relief crews in overhauling.
If your resources are limited, then you should at least release the units who have expended the most energy. The released units can be replaced by other units still on location who have not worked to the same degree. Either of these procedures will provide a rest period and reduce fatigue and stress factors, as well as the chance of injury by having fresh, alert firefighters pei_____o_____g the over_____a_____ p_____lase— the time most injuries take place.
FALLS/STRUCK BY OBJECTS
Firefighters falling and being struck by objects is the second leading cause of death. Included in this category are the deaths resulting from responding to and returning from alarms (see chart). If we could arrive at and return from the scene safely, many lives would be saved. No one intentionally has an accident. All accidents are made up of a series of links, each one connected to the next. If two vehicles are involved, there are two chains of events, one for each vehicle. The two chains are then locked together at impact.
The first link in the chain of events is the “point of possible perception.” This is the first time and place that a driver can perceive that there is danger. Inhibiting this perception could be fatigue, radio traffic, etc.
The next link would be the “point of actual perception.” This could occur simultaneously with the point of possible perception or it could be delayed by the previous factors. It is the first time that the driver actually knows of the danger and that some action must be taken to correct the co_____o_____ _____ possible. The driver must realize that various obstructions can interfere with this link (actual perception) and vehicle operation must be adjusted.
The “point of no escape” follows. This is the place in time when the accident cannot be prevented by the driver of either vehicle, or by the fire apparatus driver caught in a run-off-the-road or overturn accident. This link is often related to the speed of the vehicle or vehicles. While this is the point at which the accident cannot be prevented, the severity of the incident can be reduced by appropriate action. Sometimes point of no escape and point of perception are one and the same, or the point of no escape may come before perception. This often means that due to speed or delayed perception, it is too late to avoid the accident even though the danger is recognized.
The final link in the chain of events is “impact.” At impact, the links in the chain are joined together as the vehicles make initial contact and the laws of physics take over. It is at this time that most of the damage takes place and injuries are incurred. This is the time that the two vehicles are pushed together as far as they will be. It is the time when unrestrained tools and equipment are propelled like missiles. It is also the time when unrestrained firefighters are ejected from the apparatus.
When we refer to speed, we usually refer to it in miles per hour. We said that the actual perception point is the first time that a driver could react to impending danger. How long would the reaction time be and how far, in feet, would the vehicle travel while a driver was reacting? Reaction time ranges from a half second to two seconds, and the distance traveled varies from 20 to 50 feet.
Normal reaction time for an average, alert, rested driver is taken at ¾ second. A fatigued person or one who has just awakened may have a slower reaction time. The distance traveled in feet is based on the speed in miles per hour. The formula for converting miles per hour (mph) to feet per second (fps) is: mph X 1.47 = fps
If a fire engine was traveling at 30 mph, it would be moving at 44.1 fps. To compute the distance traveled during reaction time, you would take 75% of the 44 feet (.75 x 44), giving a distance of 33 feet. This means that while you were removing your foot from the accelerator and placing it on the brake pedal, your vehicle would have * traveled 33 feet. If you were doing 40 mph, you would have traveled 44 feet during the reaction time.
Having applied the brake, it will now take time for the apparatus to come to a stop. The distance traveled is called the stopping distance. Heavy-duty vehicles do not stop in the same distance that smaller passenger cars do. At 30 mph, it will take a total stopping distance of 78 feet for the average automobile compared to 128 feet for a heavyduty two-axle fire truck. Drivers must remember this when they drive to work in a small sports car and then get behind the wheel of a fire department pumper or, worse, a tower ladder.
There are two factors that should be considered as causes of accidents:
Operational factor—any hazardous behavior that contributes directly to the accident, such as:
- Speed—illegal or excessive for the conditions involved (obstructed view, weather, road condition, etc.).
- Wrong way—proceeding against traffic in an emergency response on the wrong side of the road without having full control of the apparatus.
- Unsafe backing—failure to use guides.
- Failure to observe traffic signals—at traffic lights, yield or stop signs, you must ensure that you are granted the right-of-way.
- Conditional factor—an unusual condition of:
- Vehicle—brakes, steering, load shift, obstructed vision, etc., that contributes to the accident.
- Road—inadequate lighting,
- ice, snow, rain, holes, and sharp curves.
- Operator—physical and mental condition that contributes to the accident, reckless driving, etc.
The above factors should be discussed at the emergency vehicle operator’s defensive driving course, which should be incorporated into the department’s training program. The responsibility for a safe response does not rest solely with the emergency vehicle operator, however. It also rests with the officer who has the ultimate responsibility, and, at times, with the firefighters riding the apparatus. Firefighters should not be permitted to ride the back step or hang off the side of the truck. They should not stand in the jumpseat area, and should be in enclosed positions, wearing full protective clothing and using seat belts or other safety devices provided.
EXPOSURE TO FIRE PRODUCTS
A firefighter’s primary means of protection against the hostile fire environment is his protective clothing and equipment. An article in the February 1984 issue of FIRE ENGINEERING, “Getting the Most Protection from Your Protective Gear,” presents an excellent explanation of the value of protective clothing.
A black turnout coat that has been exposed to between 450° and 525°F during a flashover will show a color change to reddish and even brown in some places. Without the thermal barrier in place, the firefighter would suffer serious burn injuries. Officers should periodically check protective clothing to avoid having a firefighter seriously injured at an incident.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards are only advisory, but adopting them will reduce the chance of serious injury. Remember, manufacturers must be competitive. We have superior materials available and yet there are firefighters who remain poorly protected due to substandard garments.
FIREFIGHTER S ENVIRONMENT
When firefighters first attend training academies, they are taught about the fire triangle (oxygen, heat, fuel), the chemistry of fire, and fire spread via convection, conduction, and radiation. If they understand these basics, then why are so many firefighters injured and killed in flashover and backdraft? Firefighting is a science, not a haphazard macho-attack without regard for personnel safety.
Flashover
Flashover is defined as “the [fire room] condition [wherein] the thermal radiation level becomes high enough to spontaneously ignite light combustible materials such as newspaper, [paneling, drapes, etc.,] in the lower part of the room.” The ceiling gas temperature usually required for flashover is 1,110°F or greater, with floor level temperatures possibly as high as 750°F. The temperatures associated with flashover depend on combustibles present, dimensions, ventilation of the room, wall surface areas, and ceiling height above the floor.
Recent testing has cast new light on flashover. Up to now, it was thought that combustible gases released during the early stages of a fire gathered at the ceiling, gradually mixed with air, and suddenly ignited when they entered the flammable range. Current research shows that if this ignition of gases occurs, it precedes flashover.
Firefighters can be exposed to any one of the following:
- The routine condition involving a temperature range of 70° to 140°F with several objects possibly burning in the room.
- The hazardous condition, with air temperatures between 140° and 570°F.
- The emergency condition of severe exposure such as being caught in a flashover. In this condition, the temperatures will exceed 570°F and the protective clothing (if it meets the NFPA standards) is designed to provide only 15 to 20 seconds of protection for your escape.
Flashover indicators
The warning indicators that a firefighter should associate with flashover include:
- Significant free burning fire in a room.
- Firefighters being forced to stay low due to the heat.
- Increasing heat build-up in the area.
- Heavy, hot, dark smoke banking down with an increase in heat being felt.
A firefighter can be involved in searching the fire floor in an area other than the immediate fire room. He could be working on the floor above the fire, with fire extension within the voids around him. In either case, the room may suddenly “explode” in flames. This is flashover. Learn the signs and take the precautions.
Backdraft
A backdraft is caused by the introduction of oxygen into an oxygen deficient, high temperature atmosphere. Fire progresses from the incipient stage to the flaming stage and finally to the smoldering stage. When the oxygen content of the available air drops below 14%, flame production ceases. Some smoldering combustion will continue below this point. For practical purposes, only 1/3 of the oxygen in the air is available for the ordinary fire. When the fire has consumed 1/3 of the oxygen, the conditions are ready for a backdraft. Tightly closed structures are candidates for a backdraft.
Fuel is present in the form of combustible gases. Carbon monoxide, with a flammable range of 12% to 74%, is the primary fire gas. Heat is present in large amounts. Ignition temperature of carbon monoxide is 1,100°F. The missing leg of the fire triangle is the oxygen. If it is allowed into the structure in sufficient quantities, there will be a backdraft.
Backdraft Indicators
Outside the building:
- Tightly sealed building with smoke being forced from cracks or small openings and being sucked back into the building.
- Window glass or doors hot to touch, with little or no visible fire.
- Tar-like, oily substances running down the inside of windows.
- Swirling smoke within the building as seen through the windows.
Inside the building:
- A peculiar whistling sound of incoming air rushing by due to pressure differentials.
- Smoke being drawn back into the building or area and appearing to curl around and reverse itself.
- Heavy smoke swirling with great force.
- Smoldering, hot fire.
- Sickly or intermittent flame due to reduced oxygen concentration.
Preventing backdraft
Lines should be stretched and charged with personnel standing to the side of the entry point. Vertical ventilation is critical. There should be no horizontal opening on entry until after vertical ventilation is completed. Firefighters must stay low in case of rapid flame development. Coordination of ventilation and interior attack is of the utmost importance.
Concerning firefighters being caught in a flashover or backdraft: Are officers employing proper tactics at the fires under their command? Perhaps, at times, some of our tactics are at fault. Are firefighters assigned to conduct search operations under severe conditions without the availability of a protective handline with them or in the immediate area? Are we performing our ventilation operations properly when faced with backdraft indicators? Are firefighters unable to perceive heat build-up as a result of increased personal protection?
SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS (SCBA)
In 1982, there were 10 deaths resulting from exposure to fire products. In all these cases, none of the firefighters were wearing SCBA. Firefighters suffer death.and lung disease every year as a result of not wearing SCBA. The equipment is available and the incident commander must make sure it is being used. A mandatory mask policy must be established by every department. The toxic environment requires mask operations. The chemicals we inhale will attack vital organs, scar lungs, damage heart muscles, and be cumulative in effect. The damage will show on an x-ray and is referred to as pulmonary fibrosis. To reduce these occurrences, SCBA must be worn at all times until the fire area is completely ventilated.
The incident commander must also take into consideration the work time of firefighters in SCBA. The total time for a 30-minute, 4.5 bottle fully charged to 4,500 psig is 17 minutes. This allows an average operational time of 11 minutes and a reserve time of 6 minutes for evacuation to a safe area. Recently, the Department of Transportation has required that the 4.5 bottles be charged to a maximum of 4,000 psig. This will reduce operational time even further. It could possibly result in a work time of as little as seven to eight minutes. The incident commander must take this fact into consideration during operations and have spare bottles available and/or additional resources (companies) for relief purposes.
