BY KAI W. RIEGER
As the American fire service progresses through time, we are faced with the responsibilities of providing many services. What used to be fire suppression alone now has evolved into fire suppression, fire prevention, EMS, hazardous materials, technical rescue, terrorism; the list goes on. As we struggle to wear these numerous “hats,” our learning tends to be replacing our old skills and knowledge instead of building on them. Sometimes we get so wrapped up in the small details of an incident that we might encounter once a year that we forget the main purpose for which the fire service was created-to save lives.
In the midst of all our specialized classes, today’s fire service training has taken a short look at going “back to basics,” back to the basic fundamentals of firefighting and the knowledge and skills that got us this far. No look into the past would be complete without a discussion of our main priority as firefighters-life safety and searching for trapped occupants. This article limits our focus to the private dwelling.
PRIORITIES AT THE FIRE SCENE
Our priorities at the fire scene are protection of life, fire containment, and property protection, in that order. The only reason for changing their order is to provide greater life safety, never just to make the incident easier for the fire department. Our first priority, as you know, is life safety. If we have not taken every reasonable effort to provide for life safety, then we have failed in our goals from the onset.
THE NEED FOR SEARCHES
The aggressive primary search will make or break the fire department in a private dwelling fire. With today’s lightweight construction, private dwelling fires are more time sensitive than ever before. The need for an aggressive primary search is paramount. Let’s look at some of the mind-boggling statistics pertaining to private dwelling incidents.
In 1997, United States municipal fire departments responded to an estimated 1,795 million fires. These fires killed 4,050 civilians and caused 23,750 reported civilian injuries. Eighty-three percent of the 4,050 total civilian deaths occurred in home structure fires.
Between 1991 and 1995, approximately 79 percent of all civilian fire deaths and 72 percent of all fire injuries occurred in the home. Seventy-two percent of all civilian fire fatalities in homes were caused by burns and smoke inhalation. This doesn’t mean the victims fell, broke their limbs, and couldn’t escape. This means they became helpless, couldn’t breathe, and ended up being burned. More than 51 percent of civilian fire fatalities were asleep at the time of the fire. Forty-one percent of deaths in homes occurred in fires that started between the hours of midnight and 6 a.m.-a time when most people are asleep.
Overall, 58 percent of civilian fatalities occurred in house fires where no detector was present. This statistical pattern was similar across all age groups. Despite the fact that more than 90 percent of U.S. homes had detectors in the years studied, roughly three-fifths of fire fatalities occurred in homes not equipped with detectors. These alarming figures reinforce the fact that our “deaths to be” are not waiting on the street corner yelling for us. They are trapped. Most victims are found in three general areas: areas of sleep (bedrooms), escape routes from bedrooms to exits, and just short of the exits (behind doors and under windows).
WHY WE DO NOT SEARCH
Aggressive primary searches are not performed for a variety of reasons. In large urban fire departments with two or three six-member truck companies on the scene, primary search and the rest of the truck work get done. For the majority of the country where staffing is scarce (even for the first few minutes), we are spread very thin on the fireground. Incident commanders assign members to the various tasks needed. “We don’t have the personnel to put in the building to just search” is often heard.
No personnel. Many individuals tend to view their department and its capabilities by the bubble (jurisdictional boundaries) in which they work. They fail to remember that all around them are area departments that would love to respond and help if they were called. They might not get there as quickly as you can, but it is still help and brings additional personnel to the fire scene.
We do not use our firefighters wisely. How can we say we are short of personnel when we look around and see 10 sector commands, eight different color flags flying, tarps laid on the ground for clean tools and empty air cylinders, and a table set up with drinks and sandwiches? All this had been done, but still there was no primary search. Why? Reduced staffing? Come on now, really! We also tend to use our people elsewhere. Incident commanders deal with obvious visible problems vs. possible hidden victims. The “out of sight, out of mind” theory comes into play. Put your people where they need to be. Look back to your priority list. Once lives are accounted for and buildings have been searched, and fire containment and property protection are handled, then the tarps and flags and cookies would be fine. But not before!
“We don’t have a truck company.” Whether the firefighters arrive on the scene with four engines and three trucks or one engine, 10 pickup trucks, and six automobiles, the truck work still needs to be done. This just simply is not a valid excuse. Does this mean that if no one arrives in a chief’s car, there doesn’t need to be an incident commander? Of course not. Assign searches to be done, and hold those assigned accountable.
Low probability of deaths. Most fires are not going to result in a fatality. Ninety-five percent of the time, it is alright if you don’t do a search, because 95 percent of the time no one is there. What you have to remember is that this thinking is playing Russian roulette. You can’t be good at performing a search if you never do it. To be truly good at what we do, we must prepare for the worst. This means covering all of our bases, all of the time.
“It’s too dangerous” and “That’s how you get firefighters killed.” Although this is sometimes true, firefighters are also killed while responding to and returning from emergency calls. We can’t quit going to fires to be safer, just as we can’t stop searching for victims in private dwellings. There is an assumption of risk in the fire service. If we have a window of opportunity, we must take it. Yes, it’s going to be hot, dangerous, and tiring. Remember, someday you may be trapped inside that burning building. You’ll be the one hoping and praying the firefighters will take that risk!
“That stuff is only for the big city!” People are misled into thinking that aggressive primary searches are needed only in the “big cities.” Fire deaths in rural communities (under 2,500 population) are roughly twice the rates of those communities with more than 250,000 population and nearly three times the rates of communities with populations of between 25,000 and 100,000. These patterns have been seen consistently since fire statistics were first formatted for analysis. Because fire deaths in large cities are more likely to be picked up by the media and broadcast to millions, whereas most fire deaths in rural areas are communicated to only a few thousand people, many people mistakenly believe that urban areas have the bigger fire problem.
PRIMARY SEARCH STRATEGIES
Get sufficient personnel to the scene. If you have a personnel shortage, set up and implement a mutual-aid program. If possible, use an automatic response from neighboring departments so they are dispatched when you are. If needed, repair damaged relationships or political barriers, and work together. We are all in this profession for the same result. Many hands make for light work. A small number of firefighters cannot be expected to complete dozens of fireground tactics in an orderly and timely fashion. It just cannot be done. Get the personnel to the scene, work from the priority list, and make the scene safer for everyone.
Use personnel wisely. During the first few minutes of the incident, use what limited staffing is available wisely. The question arises: “Do we stretch a handline and attack the fire, or do we let it burn and search for victims?” Although there are many proponents of each position, the tactical answer with reduced staffing is to do both simultaneously. Get a hose in place to defend the bedrooms and a retreat area. Have others search. When additional help arrives, additional lines can be stretched.
An aggressive primary search is a real life game of “beat the clock.” We must get in quickly and get our victims out quickly. While we are hustling through the house, the fire is growing and extending at an astounding rate. We cannot call “time out!” while we search the building. This is the reason we need a handline to protect us and our means of egress (hallways and stairs) during the search. The line is not there to be taken with us through every nook and cranny of the house while we search. It is to defend our operating area and the ever important interior stairway if we are operating on the second floor. Once the line is in place, the additional firefighters will “peel off,” with the exception of the nozzleman, and search close and high probability areas. The nozzleman cannot leave the hoseline even for a few seconds. He is our “anchorman” in this lifesaving game of “tug-of-war.”
Drill, drill, and drill some more! We cannot expect to be proficient at something we seldom do. If needed, go on days or evenings when you are not working to train and search. Go through search mazes to keep up with the many obstacles that you might face. Don all of your protective gear and SCBA, and reacquaint yourself with how it feels, how to use your senses, and how far you can push yourself. If you are a career firefighter, train on-duty and often. If you cannot get permission to burn a house scheduled for demolition, then search it! Put masking tape over your mask, hide baby dolls and adult dummies, and do primary search drills. A firefighter’s performance level is in direct proportion to the firefighter’s (and the department’s) commitment to excellence. You can’t be good if you just don’t care!
Needed equipment. A number of items definitely should be on the “need to have” list. All protective equipment must be worn, including boots, pants, coat, gloves, hood, helmet, and SCBA. A personal alert safety system (PASS device) should be worn. Many new SCBAs have them integrated into the system. When you turn on the air cylinder, it activates the PASS alarm. Although this is a wonderful technological breakthrough, a reliable “rate of rise” or “heat detector” sensor for the integrated PASS devices has not been designed. Often, we are so encapsulated doing our interior operations, we lose sight of changing heat conditions around us. Using PASS devices with motion and heat sensors is always a smart choice. A portable radio is a necessity when operating on the fireground. It is not to be used for unnecessary chit-chat but for firefighter safety and reporting valuable information. Even if you never say a word over the air, it can be priceless as you listen for size-ups, changing fire conditions, or other firefighters reporting that the building is all clear or all victims are accounted for. Hand tools are a must. They are needed for tasks such as extending your reach, breaking glass to vent for life, and forcing locked doors. Next is a powerful hand light. I don’t mean a small “C”- or “D”-cell flashlight that you carry in your pocket. I am talking about a powerful explosionproof light that will aid you in your operations. Some firefighters ask: “Why take a light? You can’t see anything anyway.” Not all fires or all areas of the fire building have a heavy smoke condition from floor to ceiling. Many times, there are a few inches or feet of visibility at the floor level. The light will have a profound impact on your visibility. In addition to your use, the IC outside will be able to see lights moving from room to room, helping him to track progress and giving him a point of reference if a firefighter becomes trapped or is missing.
Size-up. Learning to read a building and its occupancy can get very involved and takes training and experience to do well. However, a few simple factors make it easier to size-up the incident. The first is to keep the time of day in mind. There is a greater risk that victims may be trapped in a 3 a.m. fire than one that occurs at 3 p.m. At nighttime fires, we should anticipate that there are victims in bedrooms and sleeping areas unless it is proven otherwise. Next, listen closely to dispatch. This applies to everyone from the rookie to the chief. Listen for key phrases such as “across the street from,” “next door to,” and “in the vicinity of.” If you hear these words, chances are that you are going to work on arrival. The call is coming from somewhere outside the fire building. It usually means that the fire has progressed so that it is visible from the exterior. It also indicates that someone other than the occupant is likely calling. Either no one is home, or the occupant(s) is trapped. Prepare for the worst.
As you arrive, look for vehicles in the driveway or in front of the building. Children’s toys and bicycles around the house are indications that occupants are present. Keep an ear open for bystanders’ reports. What are they saying as you attack the incident? “They are on vacation.” “They are both at work.” “I don’t know if they got out.” “I haven’t seen them.” Statements like these will give you an idea of what you may be up against.
Oftentimes, police officers inform us on arrival that all occupants are out of the building. Keep in mind that the officer did not actually search the building and most times is merely repeating a statement he overheard. Evaluate such information carefully.
As stated earlier, if there is a window of opportunity, you must take it. It is unacceptable to say “There’s probably nobody in there.” If it is safe, search it. By the same token, you wouldn’t go diving into a fully involved building that’s known to be vacant without a reported victim. If a search can be accomplished, do it!
Search techniques. These include a two-person search during which they remain in physical contact. One firefighter maintains wall contact, feels the wall, and sweeps the floor. The second firefighter holds on to the outside foot of the first firefighter and sweeps the floor with his hand (preferably with a tool) and his outside foot. This is a good technique if visibility is zero, there is a large area to search, or one or both of the firefighters are inexperienced. If you do happen to become lost, just turn around, follow the wall, and backtrack to safety. The drawbacks to this type of search are that in moderate or good visibility, you are using up a lot of time circling around a room you can see across. You are limiting yourself to the walls, and victims in the middle of the room or just out of reach are easily missed.
Another option is a two-person search with the team splitting up. This type of search is designed for private dwelling use. Two firefighters enter a private dwelling bedroom hallway. One searches the room while the second remains at the door. If the searching firefighter becomes disoriented or calls for you, simply call out so the searching firefighter can hear you and determine where the exit is. When the team moves on to the next room, the firefighters switch positions. The original searching firefighter takes a short break while the rested firefighter goes to work.
Another method involves the two firefighters splitting up. One searches the left side of the hallway while the other searches the right side. They meet at the end or work together to remove victims if any are found. The disadvantage of this type of search is that firefighters are separated. Inexperienced firefighters can get anxious if operating alone and searching without supervision. The advantages are that experienced firefighters can cover much more ground, much faster. Remember, we are talking about private dwellings. Members are usually not far from each other and have voice contact. A team member can stay at the top of the stairs or in the hallway to monitor conditions and operations. Try to search the fire room or rooms next to the fire first, if possible. They deteriorate the fastest, and you may not be able to get back into them. If victims are there, they are in the most danger. If there is fire in a room, close the door. This will buy you time to search with available visibility and thermal layering. After the nozzle is opened (with any type of nozzle), the visibility can greatly worsen. Thermal inversion will occur, making the search job extremely difficult. If you are searching the fire area remote from bedrooms, the next rescue team must get to the bedrooms. In private dwelling searches, searching bedrooms can be very productive. Realize that you may need to pass the fire or be on the floor above. Both are dangerous positions. You must be constantly aware of your surroundings and always know two means of egress from your position. If you are in a room with one door and no windows, remember you usually can easily breach a wall in a private dwelling.
Vent-enter-search (VES). Many times it is easier to identify bedrooms from the outside instead of searching for them from the inside. This is especially true with new and larger homes, where bedrooms can be spread out or on different floors. This is one of the reasons VES is so effective.
In VES, we go directly to the bedrooms, bypassing the interior, and search for victims. Locate the bedroom to be searched. VES can be accomplished in several bedrooms simultaneously. Get to the bedroom window by getting on a porch roof, operating out of a tower ladder bucket, or using an aerial or ground ladder. If using a ladder, the tip of the ladder should be placed even with the windowsill. You don’t want extra rungs in the window opening hampering your way in or out.
Once at the window, examine it (is it hot?) and the smoke behind it. This will tell you that the room is likely to “light up” after taking the glass. With your hand tool, take the glass and look at the characteristics of the smoke. Is it light gray and lightly oozing out of the window, or is it hot, boiling, twisting black smoke, which would indicate a hostile environment in the room? Let the room vent, or “blow,” for five to 10 seconds. If it is going to light up, it would be better if you are on the outside. After you have “read” the smoke and let the room vent, take the entire window and sash. Remember, you are making a door out of a window opening. This is not the time to be worried about keeping restoration costs down. Crawl inside the room through the opening you just made, and immediately get to the interior door and close it. This buys you time by putting a door between you and the fire. Briefly note the hallway conditions when you are at the door. If there is no fire, you can operate much differently than if the fire is making its way down the hall to you. Now search the room quickly. Always know your exit route. In a private dwelling, you are only several feet from the bedroom window. Pay attention to smoke conditions while you search. Once you complete the primary search in that bedroom, get out. If it is not being done by other members, and time permits, VES other bedrooms. Private dwelling bedrooms can be VES-searched rapidly. VES takes practice and experience to perform. Inexperienced firefighters should not be assigned this duty. VES training can be provided by using training buildings or houses that are to be demolished.
If firefighters are performing VES, positive-pressure ventilation (PPV) cannot be used to vent the building. You would be creating an exit path for the heat and products of combustion that is headed directly at the searching firefighter(s) and the victim. Use PPV after VES has been completed.
VES is not used for incidents involving food on the stove, mattresses, or other small fires or in areas that can be accessed quickly by an interior team. It is performed where there is a known or suspected life hazard, and it is used in conjunction with a good interior search.
This type of search needs coordination and is not a freelancing option. Window entry is the fastest route to the location of a known victim. If a victim is found, he can be removed to the window, tower ladder basket, or porch roof when conditions do not permit removing him through the house interior.
As you advance through the search, advise the IC of your progress over the radio. Even if the IC is nearby, the radio announcement tells everyone on the fireground and listening authorities of your progress. Use short, descriptive phrases like “Primary search is complete and negative,” or describe sections such as “Primary on the second floor is complete and negative.” If you cannot search the fire room, just say so on the radio.
 This small porch roof cannot support an entire company, but one firefighter can use it to VES a second-floor bedroom. It still makes possible a two-pronged attack for rescuing victims. |
If a victim is found, first radio the IC and tell him where you are, that you have a victim, and if you need help. If help is available, pass the victim to the assisting firefighters, and continue the search. Don’t just get one victim and quit the search. Families and children often “huddle” together. Numerous times, siblings have been discovered next to the first victim. Keep searching!
Preserving human life will continue to be the primary mission of the fire service. In this high-tech world, primary search is becoming a lost art. We cannot spread our operations or our training so thin that we neglect our primary responsibilities. By making primary search a priority on the fireground, we can make a difference in the lives we swore to protect.
References
Aherns, Marty, “Patterns of Fire Casualties in Home Fires By Age and Sex, 1991-1995,” Fire Analysis and Research Division, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Mass.
Dunn, Vincent. Safety and Survival on the Fireground (Saddle Brook, NJ: Fire Engineering Books and Videos, 1992), 291.
Hall, Jr., John, “The US Fire Problem Overview Report – Leading Causes and Other Patterns and Trends,” Fire Analysis and Research Division, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Mass., Jan. 1998.
“Search and Rescue in Single-Family Dwellings, Part 1,” Bill Gustin, Fire Engineering, Aug. 1998, 73-82.
“Search and Rescue in Single-Family Dwellings, Part 2,” Bill Gustin, Fire Engineering, Sept. 1998, 51-70.
“Search and Rescue in Single-Family Dwellings, Part 3”, Bill Gustin, Fire Engineering, Oct. 1998, 81-88
KAI W. RIEGER, an 11-year veteran of the fire service, is a career firefighter/paramedic with the Jackson Township Fire Department in Canton, Ohio. He has a bachelor’s degree in management and an associate’s degree in fire science. He is an Ohio state-certified fire instructor, a hazardous materials technician, and an assistant control officer for the Stark County Hazardous Materials and Confined Space Team.
