BY ROBERT L. GRAY
If you were assigned to be a member of a rapid intervention team (RIT) during your next structure fire-or had to command a fireground rescue as a chief officer-are you confident that you would be up to the task of successfully responding to a firefighter Mayday?
The idea of having a group of dedicated and specially trained firefighters standing by to “rescue the rescuers” has been embraced by most fire departments for many years. However, as the years have passed since this concept was first introduced, a sense of complacency among some firefighters has resulted from the belief that “if we haven’t needed one up to now, we probably never will.” Even worse, a fire department’s lack of commitment to training for this important function can result in the general attitude that being prepared for a RIT deployment doesn’t add very much value to firefighter safety on the fireground.
Although it may be the case that your particular fire department has yet to experience the need for an actual firefighter rescue, this in no way diminishes the chances that you may be called on to rescue a fellow firefighter in the future.
Nationwide, more firefighters get in trouble while fighting residential house fires than in any other kind of structure, even though fires in these structures are considered to be a relatively routine “bread-and-butter” event. The presence of plastics and synthetics in today’s lightweight structures that make up many of today’s single-family residences generates greater quantities of toxic smoke and burn with higher rates of heat release. This can result in reduced visibility, earlier flashover, fire spread, and structural collapse. Commercial occupancies also present many unique hazards, including large and unfamiliar open spaces that can lead to a lost (and out-of-air) firefighter-a situation potentially compounded by the lack of on-site fire protection equipment needed to keep a fire from rapidly growing and trapping firefighters inside.
In the 1999 commercial structure fire in Worcester, Massachusetts, where six firefighters died, four of the victims were attempting to rescue the initial fire attack crew that had become lost inside an older, high-square-footage structure. Many fire departments have some of these older buildings throughout their district; many others have seen the proliferation of newer “big-box” style discount stores and structures.
These buildings will challenge your ability to stay out of trouble, regardless of whether you are inside performing fire suppression tasks or deployed as a RIT. The hazards present in these large commercial structures, not to mention the risk involved with your so-called “typical” residential structure fire, underscore the importance of making sure that your RIT capabilities are up to speed. When you really think about it, deploying as a member of a RIT sent in to rescue another firefighter is the ultimate fireground challenge.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE RIT CONCEPT
Most of the large, metropolitan fire departments in the United States started using fireground intervention teams about 10 to 15 years ago. During the 1990s, the Federal Government got into the process when the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) issued the “two-in/two-out” rule, which mandates that when two firefighters enter an atmosphere that presents an immediate danger to life and health (IDLH), at least two firefighters shall be located outside the IDLH atmosphere. An exception to this rule is allowed for the purpose of “emergency rescue activities.”
In my district, the Bellingham (WA) Fire Department follows guidelines set forth by state law as per the Washington Administrative Code 296-305-05001, which says the following about the requirement for rapid intervention teams:
- The fire department shall provide personnel for the rescue of members operating at emergency incidents as the need arises.
- Firefighters must not engage in interior structural firefighting in the absence of at least two standby firefighters.
An exception to this standard is allowed (and only temporarily) when “exceptional circumstances” indicate that immediate action on the part of the first-in crew is necessary to provide rescue. However, to qualify for this exception, the following must apply: Only one team is allowed in the hazard area, additional resources must be on the way, and at least one firefighter is to be “standing by.” Our policies and procedures address this initial standby firefighter requirement by assigning this temporary duty to the apparatus driver/engineer.
There are documented cases of successful RIT operations, but the fire service still is experiencing a line-of-duty firefighter death rate of more than 100 firefighters per year. As recently as mid-2005, the International Association of Fire Chiefs called for a safety standdown because the fatality rate had approached 50 by mid-year. Tragically, there were 115 firefighter deaths in 2005. Clearly, the fireground is just as hazardous, if not more so, than it used to be. In fact, despite the prominence of the rapid intervention concept in our profession, the firefighter death and injury rate has yet to be appreciably reduced, leaving room for improvement in how this important fireground function is carried out.
What makes the history of the rapid intervention concept so relevant to this discussion is the understanding that the “two-in/two-out” safety standard is just the minimum called for during interior firefighting operations, and also the realization that just having two firefighters waiting outside the structure is not going to be enough to safely and efficiently rescue a distressed firefighter who is running out of time.
POTENTIAL CHALLENGES TO A RIT DEPLOYMENT
What are some of the potential challenges facing the fireground RIT? The first thing to remember is that your safety as a RIT member is still priority number one. The very same tactical hazards encountered by the interior crew now calling for your help will most likely be an issue that you as a RIT member will also have to deal with, such as a large building (crew ran out of air), excessive heat (heat stroke/cardiac event), low visibility (crew separation), complex floor plan (crew got lost), and structural collapse (building instability).
Consider these possibilities as you prepare to make your move into conditions that may be getting worse. It is essential that the incident commander (IC) and the RIT members come up with a plan based on current fireground conditions and actual rescue needs that are both safe and efficient. If either one of these plan elements is missing, attempting a firefighter rescue can create more problems than it solves. Remember: “If it starts bad, it usually ends bad.”
Another RIT deployment challenge comes under the heading of “friction of operations,” or time delays. As the IC begins to focus on the additional demand of firefighter rescue, the direction of the incident inevitably will change course as this new dynamic is forced into the operation. With limited resources on the fireground, it will take some time to get the rescue effort underway while still addressing all of the fireground conditions that still need to be reckoned with. The words “rapid intervention” have led many to believe that a firefighter rescue can be accomplished quickly and easily, as if you could just throw the disoriented or injured firefighter over your shoulder and walk out of the structure. Consider these possible delays:
• Receiving the Initial “Mayday”: Unfortunately, the tradtional fire service culture has been to wait too long to call for help. By that time, things have just gotten worse. Conditions affecting the crew in distress include separation from other team members, tools lost, hoseline forgotten, exhaustion of air supply, and most likely the elimination of any additional margin for error that would have made the RIT mission easier.
• Deployment of Team: It may well be that five to 10 minutes have elapsed by the time the RIT consults with the IC, devises a safe and efficient plan, gathers up the necessary equipment, and makes its way to the entry point of the structure.
• Travel Time: Now you need to find the crew that is calling for help. As mentioned earlier, the very same conditions that got them in trouble may now be waiting to slow you down. Are they still lost? How will you find them? Is the fire still burning? Is visibility low? Did the structure collapse?
• Radio Traffic: You are now in the structure, but communication with the IC (or the rescue group leader) is more critical than ever to do your job. In addition, you may need to ask for another crew, more equipment, breathing air, or other supplies to get the job done. If you think communications are a challenge during a “normal” fire, wait until a RIT deployment competes for valuable “air time” with the rest of the fireground operation!
• Extrication: If you find the firefighter who has called for help, you may need to remove him from a pile of twisted and tangled building materials or package him up for removal to a safe area. You may need to call for additional help (or more tools and equipment) to remove even just one firefighter from the hazard area.
• Emotion: Let’s be realistic. A RIT deployment involving someone in your department is going to challenge your ability to think rationally. Designing an effective action plan will be the first step; the rest of the challenge will be to put your emotions aside as you discipline yourself to get the rescue accomplished. This is not the time for half-baked rescue plans or “self-assigned” deployments.
• Air Supply: This may be the most critical factor. Chief (Ret.) Alan Brunacini of the Phoenix (AZ) Fire Department once said, “Our life expectancy inside a fire structure is limited to the air we carry on our backs.” More than likely, the interior crew will be depleted of air when they call for help (or soon thereafter). How will you address this challenge? How much extra breathing air will you bring in-and not just for the crew who has requested your help, but for your crew as well?
It is worth taking note of these potential issues in the context of what happened to the Phoenix Fire Department after one of its firefighters, Brett Tarver, was lost in a commercial structure during a grocery store fire in 2001. From the point of Tarver’s initial Mayday until the moment he was extricated from the building, total time for the operation was 53 minutes. This tragic event became a body recovery as Tarver became lost, ran out of air, took off his mask, and succumbed to carbon monoxide poisoning.
This incident prompted the Phoenix Fire Department to design and conduct a comprehensive test of its RIT effectiveness by running firefighters through a series of drills designed to duplicate a “firefighter lost” scenario during a commercial structure fire. During the many RIT evolutions that were conducted, the average time to rescue was 21 minutes. In addition, one out of every five of the “rescuers” involved in the drill got into trouble themselves: running out of air, becoming separated from their crew, losing their hoseline-and this was just a drill!
We all know that drill scenarios are held under ideal conditions in comparison with the fireground, which typically offers the worst conditions for a RIT operation. The point here is that a RIT operation will most likely take more time than you may realize, and the clock will be ticking. So, what can we do to be better prepared?
KEEPING YOURSELF OUT OF TROUBLE ON THE FIREGROUND
While there is no way to eliminate all of the risks present on the fireground, preventing problems before they happen is an important element of rapid intervention training. Here are some prevention basics.
Your department’s training program, which has been developed and conducted for operations personnel, is important to maintaining an optimum level of fireground safety. Why does this work? Because competence in the basics of firefighting can keep you from committing unsafe acts on the fireground. Spend some time reading the death and injury reports issued by the various fire service safety organizations in our country. A common theme in these reports is a failure to adhere to proper fireground procedures-i.e, freelancing on the fireground, lack of crew accountability, entering a structure with half-empty SCBA bottles, and losing the hoseline.
The use of standard fireground operating guidelines enhances our safety. These “procedural preplans” add an element of predictability on the fireground, allowing fire crews to work safely and efficiently. This includes work-cycle guidelines that make rehab mandatory after 45 minutes of work time or consumption of two SCBA bottles. Our fireground staffing usually is less than ideal, sometimes pushing firefighters to exceed their physical limits. Rehab gives you and your crew the opportunity to rest, rehydrate, and replenish energy stores, enhancing firefighter safety and productivity. Invest some time in reviewing your department’s operating guidelines and be sure to follow them.
Taking shortcuts around these same safe operating procedures is another potential hazard. Safe operating procedures that have been developed well in advance of an incident are designed to prevent unnecessary injuries and fatalities. Don’t allow the presence of the incident safety officer and a dedicated RIT to trick you into a state of complacency while you operate on the fireground.
How is your physical fitness level? Approximately one-half of all fireground fatalities involve a cardiac event. Not all of these events happen during fire attack. A cardiac symptom ignored during the early stages of an incident can become more severe (and noticeable) as the incident deescalates or during a strenuous activity, such as overhaul.
One of the most important fireground prevention tools available to you is the discipline of situational awareness. This is accomplished by maintaining an awareness of where you are and what is going on around you and by thinking rationally about the consequences of your decisions instead of just blindly doing what you did at the last fire. Ask yourself these questions: Is your crew still intact? Is anyone falling behind? Is visibility getting worse? Is the heat inside the structure building rapidly? Is the floor unstable? Do you have enough tank air left to get back out?
This simple thought process can prevent you from being surprised by flashover, building collapse, getting lost, or getting separated from your crew and running out of air. These same culprits kill and injure firefighters every year. Paying attention to your surroundings is important for suppression and rapid intervention crews. It also is important to know when to call a Mayday.
PREDEPLOYMENT AND OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Some larger fire departments have response crews preselected for RIT duty, but many do not because of the variability of a department’s daily call load. This means that the IC typically will assign the fireground RIT function to the most appropriate crew; usually, this will be the first crew available, and this could be any crew that has arrived on the fireground.
What can you do to be ready? The basics of team location and equipment selection are good starting points. Choose a location on the fireground that allows you quick access to the structure without being directly in the way of operations; this includes a suitable area to deploy your personnel and equipment. The initial equipment to collect includes extra breathing air, forcible entry devices, thermal imaging camera, prefire plan, chainsaws, lights, and search rope. Be sure to familiarize yourself with any piece of equipment you haven’t used for a while.
Another important preparation activity is the fireground size-up. What kind of structure is involved, and how is it constructed? This process does not end after you have located your team, selected your tools, and looked at the building. Instead, it should be a continual process of asking yourself (and your crew): “What could happen next?” Listening to radio traffic gives you an idea of who is doing what and where they are doing it. Using this information gives you an idea of where to effectively deploy (and announce the location of) ground ladders. Scene lighting can be used to make night operations safer and serve as a beacon highlighting a critical exit point for interior crews who may get lost.
Challenge your crew by asking them questions about how the team will use guide rope during a search or if additional personnel should be added to the team. Discuss how a RIT deployment may need to be conducted and how a fireground task currently being performed may go wrong. These all are activities that can keep everyone thinking about what may need to be done next. Remember, the first 10 to 15 minutes of a structure fire usually are the most intense. It is during this time that your preparation can be critical to the success of a firefighter rescue mission.
If fireground Mayday does occur, it is important that the RIT consult with the IC before self-deploying into the structure. For example, since the rescue situation is going to be time critical, the team’s first priority is usually to find the firefighters and to stabilize the situation as quickly as possible. To accomplish this, the RIT needs to be highly mobile and not burdened down with unnecessary gear that will only get in their way as they conduct a rapid search. The team also needs a solid plan that will allow them to rapidly yet systematically search for the distressed firefighters.
The best way to increase the odds of a successful rescue operation is for the IC and the RIT to bring their respective information to the command post, resulting in a rescue plan that is based on current fireground conditions and actual rescue needs. Remember that time will be a critical factor; you may only get one chance to reach a trapped firefighter in time.
THE ROLE OF THE IC
Even though every firefighter shares the responsibility for safety on the fireground-especially company officers and the safety officer-the IC ultimately is the ranking risk/benefit manager for the operation.
It is the IC’s responsibility to organize the fireground so that he has time to periodically step back, take a look at what is taking place, and then either continue with the current action plan or revise it to get the job done as safely and efficiently as possible.
Conscientious ICs will facilitate timely size-ups, call for adequate resources, use a command post aide, conduct risk vs. benefit assessments, implement an on-scene accountability system, and delegate critical fireground tasks and areas to qualified fire officers. But despite the best efforts of an IC, there is no way to eliminate all the risks present on the fireground. You can give your firefighters the best safety gear, standard fireground operating guidelines, and appropriate tactical assignments, but you can’t always prevent them from committing unsafe acts or keep them totally insulated from the dynamics of a rapidly changing firefight.
Therefore, when things go wrong, the IC who has directed some effort toward thinking about how a Mayday will affect a fireground operation-and how it should be handled-will be that much farther ahead on the performance curve than a chief officer who hopes that this situation will never occur on his watch.
How to specifically command and execute a firefighter rescue will depend on many variables, including the nature of the emergency, fireground staffing and expertise, and the availability of equipment. However, preparation can begin with a simple format or template that you can apply to your own department and the way that it operates. Consider the “PARK” method (Figure 1) as a starting point for your own self-study and preparation:
Perform a Roll Call – Get Some Intel
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Alarms – Call for Additional Alarms
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Rescue – Deploy the Rapid Intervention Team for Firefighter Rescue
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Keep the Rest of the Fireground Operation Safe and Efficient
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• Perform a roll call. Get some information. Announcing that a roll call is taking place and that only essential radio traffic is to be broadcast sends the message that you are in control and are taking decisive action. The IC should call the RIT to the command post and begin the process of collecting some basic information-who is lost or in distress, where they may be, their medical condition or needs, and conditions inside the structure-before sending the team inside. The relatively small amount of time invested in gathering some basic information on what has happened will pay big dividends when the team begins its mission, giving it the best chance for success.
• Alarms. Call for additional alarms. Time is going to be a critical variable in executing a successful rescue. Fireground staffing is never ideal, so if you even think that you will need more firefighters, get them to respond earlier rather than later so they can arrive in time to be of use.
• Rescue. Deploy the RIT for firefighter rescue. If you have taken the time to gather some basic information on who is in trouble, where they may be, and current conditions in the structure, you are now in a good position to put a solid plan together with the RIT leader and then deploy team members into the structure. You also will need to decide if you are going to directly supervise the RIT or if you will assign a qualified officer to the position of rescue group leader. Assign the RIT rescue operation to a separate radio frequency to maximize command and control of this important operation. Consider sending the first team in to find the distressed firefighters as soon as possible. Once members report back to you on their position and rescue needs, you can assign additional teams to bring in the equipment and to assist with stabilization and extrication. As you can see, the assignment of a rescue group leader will serve to reduce your span of control (and keep it within manageable limits) as you assign more firefighters to the rescue effort.
• Keep the Rest of the Fireground Operation Safe and Efficient. It will be important to remind well-intentioned firefighters as often as necessary to maintain their original assignment to ensure that the rescue group can accomplish its goal of firefighter rescue. We all know that freelancing only adds to chaos and confusion. It also is worth remembering that the original problems present before the Mayday call still will be present in the form of fireground hazards. Here is where putting the original fireground operation and the RIT rescue on separate frequencies can ensure that both incidents have the necessary level of command and control. If you are still running the incident by yourself, now is the time to have a qualified officer report to the command post to assist you in this important function.
A RIT assignment, which can be viewed by some firefighters as a pointless assignment away from the action and by others as fireground life insurance, is just as important as any other activity that takes place during fire suppression activities. Why? Because there is always the possibility of a fireground Mayday.
Your job as a RIT member and IC is to be prepared to move through the worst conditions possible, conditions that will challenge you physically and emotionally. By learning everything you can about the RIT concept and applying what you know to your next fire incident, you will increase your odds-when the call for help comes in-of being able to effectively execute your RIT assignment without becoming a victim yourself.
References
United States. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Occupational Safety and Health Standards. 1 July, 2005. <http://www.gpoaccess.gov/cfr/index.html>.
State of Washington. Washington Legislature. Washington Administrative Code. 19 July, 2006. <http://apps.leg.wa.gov/wac/>
Figure 1.
PARK: Commanding a Fireground Rescue
Perform a Roll Call – Get Some Intel
- Start with the first-in interior crews.
- Identify who is actually in trouble.
- Announce: “Has anyone seen…?”
- Complete the rest of the roll call as soon as practicable.
- Send all crews a “stay on task” message during the roll call.
- Remove all nonessential crews from the incident area and collect them for redeployment as RIT Support or a new RIT.
Alarms – Call for Additional Alarms
- You are definitely going to need more firefighters.
Rescue – Deploy the Rapid Intervention Team for Firefighter Rescue
- Establish a Rescue Group.
- Give them some intel to use before they deploy.
- Consider a separate RIT rescue frequency to effectively manage the additional command workload.
- Remember: The RIT deployment is now another mini-incident. The RIT may need additional resources such as hoselines, ventilation, an extrication team, patient care, supplies, and message “runners.”
Keep the Rest of the Fireground Operation Safe and Efficient
- Stability of the other fireground operation is critical for RIT safety and effectiveness.
- Forcefully, but calmly, direct crews to continue their regular assignment.
- Crews need to focus and “stay on task.”
ROBERT L. GRAY is a 19-year veteran of the Bellingham (WA) Fire Department, where he is a fire captain. He has previously served as a department training officer and is assigned to the hazardous materials team and a type 3 incident management team. He has an associate’s degree in fire command and administration.
