MEETING THE CHALLENGES OF AIRCRAFT EXTRACTION
Many firefighters have responded to a major aircraft incident. Every one of them probably never would want to do it again. Few emergency situations match the magnitude, stress, and challenges of an aircraft disaster.
Does your department protect or have an airport in its jurisdiction? Is your jurisdiction situated under or near an active aircraft flight path? If so, you should become familiar with the types of aircraft that frequent your area and the hazards and problems they present during an aircraft emergency. Your department should plan and train for an aircraft incident.
This article addresses one of the many complicated and demanding aspects of an aircraft crash: removing the victims from the wreckage. It highlights the unique nature of aircraft construction and the equipment and techniques for effective rescue operations. Depending on the type of aircraft and the severity of the impact, firefighters might be called on to perform a difficult and complex victim-extrication or a fatality-removal operation.
The majority of aircraft accidents involve general aviation, fixed or rotary wing (helicopter) aircraft. These types of aircraft have passenger loads of one to six. They are not as ruggedly constructed for high-altitude pressurization as are the larger jet transports. They present an extrication rescue situation similar to that of a motor vehicle accident. Incidents involving these smaller aircraft frequently are complicated by the remoteness of the crash site, final resting position of the aircraft, and involvement of structures or objects impacted on the ground.
Incidents involving high-altitude corporate or commercial passenger aircraft are much more complicated and challenging. They can be categorized into two types—highand lowimpact crashes. High-impact incidents involve high-angle, high-speed crash dynamics, with little or no pilot control. This type of accident usually occurs off the airport grounds and results in the loss of all aircraft occupants, total breakup of the aircraft, and significant destruction on the ground.
Low-impact incidents, in comparison, usually occur on or near an airport. There is some degree of pilot control, substantial sections of the aircraft fuselage may remain intact, and many of the passengers and crew survive the crash dynamics, only to perish in the common postcrash inferno caused by the large quantities of fuel on board. The aircraft skin and structural members are constructed predominantly of aluminum alloys or lightweight composite-type materials. These materials begin to fail after 90 to 120 seconds of contact with direct flame. In most situations, any aircraft occupants not able to rescue themselves or not evacuated by the flight crew or responding firefighters quickly will become victims of thermal burns or smoke inhalation resulting from a rapidly spreading fire.
Except for body removal, the scenarios described above do not present much of a forcible entry or extrication problem for firefighters. Yet there have been recent cases in which there have been no postcrash fires and traumatically injured survivors have been trapped inside severely damaged aircraft. In fact, over the past several years statistics show that significantly more aircraft occupants have survived than perished in major air-carrier incidents. Emergency responders encountered this type of a situation in aircraft accidents that occurred in Long Island, New York; Denver, Colorado; Portland, Oregon; and East Midlands, England. The magnitude of the inherent and dangerous problems encountered and the operations needed to manage this type of incident can challenge and overwhelm any fire department.
A TRAUMATIC SCENE
Passenger loads can range from a dozen on a small commuter aircraft to more than 300 on a wide-body aircraft. Survivors suffer complicated and massive traumatic injuries that require an extensive and well-organized medical response to support the extrication operation. Some victims still will be strapped in their seats, many of which have broken loose from floor tracks and become entangled. Dislodged pieces of the plane’s interior, overhead luggage containers, carry-on items, galleys, and food and beverage carts contribute to congestion throughout the aircraft cabin.
The aircraft is severely damaged, and the fuselage often fractures forward and aft of the wing root (cabin area directly over the wings) and at the tail and flight deck areas. Fuselage sections come to rest in any imaginable position. As the structural integrity of the aircraft fails, sections begin to collapse. The weight of the wings expedites the collapse when the plane is upside down or in an inverted position. The terrain and objects at the crash scene further complicate access to the aircraft, which can slide, shift, or roll and, therefore, must be stabilized before attempting prying, lifting, or other types of forcible rescue activities.
Extensive quantities of fuel inside and around the aircraft usually are liberated. Hot aircraft engines, extensive electrical systems, emergency vehicles, and equipment provide many ignition sources. Toxic hydraulic fluids, composite materials, and hazardous cargos are encountered. Potentially explosive and extremely dangerous compressed gas cylinders and wheel and tire assemblies are scattered throughout the wreckage. Razor-sharp and jagged-metal aircraft parts of all shapes and sizes are everywhere. Normal aircraft doors and egress systems, which are inadequate for evacuating large numbers of occupants, may become damaged and inoperable. Doors that successfully are opened may activate evacuation slides.
The condition of fatalities is graphically distressing to firefighters, and the immediate rescue area is contaminated with body fluids. Trapped victims are crying out in pain and pleading for help.
The incident scene quickly becomes congested with emergency responders, spectators, and members of the news media. The National Transportation and Safety Board as well as the Federal Aviation Administration scrutinize and comment on the rescue effort and level of expertise of the rescue personnel.
THE FIRE DEPARTMENT’S ROLE
No two aircraft rescue situations are the same. Each accident presents different problems. Effective aircraft rescue depends on the resourcefulness, experience, creativity, teamwork, and ingenuity of responding firefighters. Competent and high levels of control, coordination, and communication from command officers are needed. Extensive training and preplanning also are required. Unfortunately, the amount of training and reference materials available on the subject of aircraft forcible entry or victim extraction is limited and outdated. Training programs or facilities to prepare aircraft firefighters for specialized rescue operations are nonexistent. Each agency must develop its own rescue skills and prepare for an aircraft-rescue situation.
Two “Aircraft Extrication and Rescue” workshops recently were conducted in Chico, California. An almost fully intact DC-7, destined for the salvage yard, was donated by TBM Inc., a firefighting air tanker contractor. The first workshop was initiated by the Chico Fire Department, assisted by Aviation Emergency Training Consultants. The entire Chico Fire Department and personnel from other Butte County’ fire agencies participated in the training. The local community college gave credits for both workshops.
The three-day program used and evaluated the effectiveness of every available rescue tool in an aircraft application. Eire personnel experimented with a wide variety of hand and power tools, specific aircraft extrication goals and objectives were identified and attempted, and many techniques and procedures were developed. We collected a considerable amount of valuable information.
Prior to the workshop we believed we had a good understanding of aircraft construction and extrication techniques. We were wrong. Many unanswered questions surfaced during the workshops, and we realized more training and information were necessary.
A second workshop, using the same aircraft, was held several months later. Aviation Emergency Training Consultants, Butte College, the Chico Fire Department, and Fire Engineering participated. The workshop was open to firefighters from the states of California and Nevada. Manufacturers and distributors of rescue tools were invited to display and demonstrate their equipment.
VALUABLE LESSONS
Following are strategies covered at the workshop that can help your department prepare for victim removal at an aircraft incident.
- Prepare for an incident before one occurs in your jurisdiction. Conduct regular training with rescue tools; practice on ordinary vehicles if necessary. Establish performance standards for each major tool, and test personnel a minimum of once a year. Keep all rescue equipment in top operating condition and institute weekly and monthly maintenance schedules. Compile an inventory of the tools and equipment available from other fire departments or agencies such as public works or the utility companies. Include the local building contractor equipment rental companies as a resource. Be aware of specialized equipment both at and away from the airport that could be used in a rescue situation; include on your resource list forklifts, cranes, tractors, scaffolding, elevating platforms, and flatbed trucks.
- Become familiar with the aircraft that frequent your airport or area. Most airlines or aircraft manufacturers provide aircraft w’all charts and preplans. Military tech manuals are an excellent source of information. We have found most air carriers receptive to providing tours of their aircraft. Some will allow your personnel to attend their flight crew training programs, which provide on-site experience with the actual egress doors
- and systems used on their aircraft as well as a cabin simulator for performing actual evacuation exercises.
Become familiar with aircraft structure and construction materials. Basic to aircraft structure are the formers that conically shape and vertically circle the fuselage. They are evenly spaced along the aircraft, like studs in a building wall, and represent one of the largest and strongest structural members confronting rescue workers. Longerons run horizontally along the fuselage and connect the formers together. The exterior skin of the aircraft is fastened to the longerons, usually with rivets. We found that a reliable method for determining the locations of structural members is to examine the rivet pattern on the outside of the aircraft. Painted aircraft surfaces may need to be sanded slightly to expose the rivets. Double and triple rows of rivets may indicate the location of a larger structural member, interior bulkhead (wall), or deck. These areas are highly reinforced and should be avoided during prying or cutting operations.
The structural members and attached skin usually are made extensively of aluminum alloys. Aluminum is a nonferrous metal and does not spark. Aluminum aircraft skin becomes very brittle with age and will pop and splinter sharp metal in all directions when ripped open with prying tools such as hydraulic spreaders. Full protective clothing is mandatory at all times. A rescue saw’ will cut cleanly and quickly under most conditions. Magnesium, titanium, and steel also are used in aircraft construction and should be given appropriate consideration. Newer aircraft contain varying configurations of considerable amounts of composite materials chosen for their strength and light weight. Many of these composite materials resemble fiberglass in appearance. Our research indicates that some of these materials may create respiratory and skin irritation hazards—similar to those caused by asbestos fibers—in crash or forcible entry conditions.
- Learn about the aircraft systems.
Those that include fuel, hydraulics, and oxygen lines and are coupled with miles of electrical wiring should be identified and avoided during rescue operations. The locations of these systems vary from aircraft to aircraft. Immediately request the presence of an aircraft mechanic or airline representative. These personnel are familiar with the aircraft and can provide invaluable assistance in locating and securing aircraft systems.
One area of the fuselage that should be avoided is located three to four feet below the interior deck on most large aircraft. This area is reinforced with additional bracing and usually contains extensive aircraft systems. An area usually clear of systems is within 20 inches of the doors and windows on large aircraft or within 12 inches on smaller aircraft; an exception to this is wide-body aircraft with compressed gas or electrically assisted doors. Fuel is usually contained in the wings, but additional tanks sometimes are located in the fuselage. Aircraft with rear-mounted engines have corresponding large fuel lines in the rear fuselage area. Military aircraft may have “cut-in” areas marked on the exterior skin, but there are a few recommended areas and markings that may be hard to see with the new military color schemes.
As an emergency responder, you also should be familiar with system shutoffs in the flight deck (cockpit) area. Most important are the fuel, electrical, engine shutdown, and extinguishing systems. Disconnect all batteries even if you must cut into the batten’ compartment. Several batteries may be located around the aircraft. Most of the commonly used, American-built commercial aircraft have only one main power source. It is located in a compartment aft of the nosegear. The best means of eliminating the source of electrical power is to disconnect the wheel of the aircraft batteries; this can be done quickly without the use of pliers. Any system or mechanism on the aircraft that is disconnected, switched off, or changed should be noted for investigative reasons.
ON THE SCENE
One of your first actions as an emergency responder should be to isolate the incident scene with large quantities of barricades and barrier tape. Establish an inner-security perimeter of approximately 300 feet around the aircraft. Limit access to this area to personnel in proper protective gear who have a specific task to accomplish. Otherwise the area around the aircraft easily could become congested with unnecessary rescue personnel. Then establish an outer-security perimeter approximately three blocks in size to accommodate the staging area, command post, and medical system. Identify a road or route into the incident scene that is solely for the use of authorized emergency vehicles.
A quick and accurate size-up is essential. This is not the time to be conservative in calling for resources. Call for personnel and equipment immediately. Activate the local mass casualty plan. Closely estimate the number of injured based on the type of aircraft and number of apparent survivors and fatalities at the scene. Secure passenger manifest information from the airport of destination or departure and the involved airline. Summon adequate medical resources. Use buses, nearby structures, or other protective measures tor temporary casualty treatment areas in adverse weather conditions. Ensure the response of all available rescue and extrication equipment; it is better to have too much than not enough assistance. Anticipate the need for specialized equipment such as cranes, shoring. portable lights, and electrical generators.
Assign safety personnel to identify, isolate, and control hazards in the immediate incident area. Whenever possible, control the aircraft’s systems, especially those of fuel and electrical power; again, it is critical that batteries be disconnected and fuel leaks controlled. Aviation gasolines used on piston-driven aircraft and JP-4 used on certain military aircraft present extreme fire hazards. No ignition sources, such as power tools, should be activated in the incident area until flammable vapor conditions are eliminated. Kerosenegrade fuel used on corporate and commercial jet aircraft is a slightly less volatile combustible liquid. Cover any spilled fuel with a foam blanket. Reapply the foam frequently, especially when power rescue tools are in operation. Staff and position backup foam hoselines in safe, uphill, upwind locations. Cover fuel spills and control vapor release with damp sand, dirt, or other common absorbents. Personnel with combustible gas analyzers should constantly monitor the crash scene and areas of the fuselage for accumulated flammable vapors. Isolate other hazards such as wheel assemblies, compressed gas cylinders, and dangerous aircraft parts or cargo.
Secure and stabilize the aircraft to prevent any movement during the rescue operation. You may need to shore up the fuselage sections with heavy timbers to prevent further collapse. Uncontrolled movement may injure victims or rescuers and possibly cause additional fuel to spill into the area. Rescue easily accessible victims during this operation.
Always attempt to open all normal access systems first. Forcible entry always should be a last resort. Become familiar with the different types of doors and operating mechanisms. Most narrow-body jet aircraft use plug-type doors that pop inward slightly before swinging out and toward the front of the aircraft. Some doors on wide-body aircraft slide up into the ceiling area, using compressed gas, electrical, or spring tension assistance. Instructions on how to open the doors usually are posted on the outside. Assume that the escape slide is armed and ready to be activated and stand clear when attempting to open any door. Slide actuation occurs within five to seven seconds. Opening the doors on most large wide-body aircraft usually will disarm or deactivate the slide. If necessary, enlarge natural openings caused by the crash. Pad and protect exposed sharp jagged metal at access points.
Try to visualize the interior conditions in unaccessible areas of the aircraft. If possible, cut investigative holes in upper areas of the fuselage for visual inspections. Have a rescuer of small stature squeeze into limitedaccess areas to begin to stabilize victims and report on the conditions. Develop an extrication and rescue plan, identify work areas, and divide personnel into rescue groups. Prepare the area around the aircraft for rescue operations. You may have to dig into hillsides or place tarps and plywood on muddy areas to provide a safe footing and a base for tools and equipment. You will need numerous lighting systems and electrical generators.
Establish a tool resource pool in a nearby location that is easily accessible from all sides of the wreckage. Usually this is done under the logistics section of an incident command system. Strip rescue tools and equipment off all apparatus and stockpile them by type at the tool resource pool area. Personnel in the resource pool also are responsible for refueling, servicing, and maintaining all tools and equipment used during the rescue and recovery operation. Rescue teams should never have to search for or service equipment.
Rescue group leaders should plan and discuss the objectives of their operational area with assigned personnel. When it’s necessary to open areas, mark the sections on the fuselage with spray paint or markers. Whenever possible, avoid aircraft systems and nearby victims, especially when using power tools during forcible entry. An effective technique is to first remove from the area the aircraft’s outer skin and any insulation and interior finish. When the structural components are exposed, reevaluate the situation and then remove the structural members. Our experience during the two extrication and rescue workshops proved that prying open doors and hatches is very difficult, time-consuming, and usually nonproductive. It is much faster and easier to remove the entire door and frame or a section of windows.
Verbal communication is very difficult due to the noisy rescue activities. Earand eye-protection gear, a helmet or hard hat, good quality gloves, and other protective clothing are mandatory. Expect work areas to be saturated with body fluids, and provide all rescue personnel with inner rubber gloves and disposable outer clothing.
Every power-tool operator should have a safety observer. Use hand signals because of the extremely loud noise levels and designate a tap on the shoulder as the signal for immediately stopping any activity. Officers in charge of the rescue and extrication operation should communicate with each other often and constantly reevaluate and update operation plans. An activity in one area of the aircraft often can adversely affect conditions in another area. Rotate rescue personnel at regular intervals to a rehabilitation area and constantly monitor them for signs of fatigue and incidentrelated stress.
Videotape, photograph, and document all rescue and extrication operations. The coroner or medical examiner must know the location, position, and condition of each fatality removed. Accident investigators must be made aware of the condition of the aircraft prior to the rescue effort and the exact changes made. Identify all items such as seats, luggage, cargo, or other parts removed from the aircraft, noting their original location; keep items removed from each area separate.
A large-frame aircraft accident presents a tremendous challenge to firefighters during forcible entry and extrication operations. The nature of aircraft design, construction materials, and systems creates a very hostile environment. Each incident is unique and tests emergency responders’ sizeup, planning, problem-solving, organizational, and command abilities.
Well-maintained rescue equipment operated by skilled and trained personnel is critical. Prior to an incident, firefighters must be familiar with basic aircraft design and construction materials. Never compromise safety. Use all designed or incident-caused openings in the aircraft before starting forcible entry. Secure and avoid all aircraft systems during cutting and prying operations. The rescue equipment, tools, and techniques used during the incident are limited only by the ingenuity and creative energies of rescue personnel.
