SWIFTWATER RESCUE TACTICS PART 1: LOW-RISK OPTIONS

SWIFTWATER RESCUE TACTICS PART 1: LOW-RISK OPTIONS

BY GARY E. SEIDEL

For safety reasons, swiftwater rescuers are taught to use the lowest risk rescue options first (which are used in approximately 70 percent of swiftwater rescue incidents) and then to proceed toward the higher-risk options (discussed in Part 2). Rescuer training levels and their respective training options are described in the box below.

SPECIALIZED SAFETY GEAR

Safety, the most critical consideration in any rescue attempt, is especially crucial when the rescue involves fast-moving water. Since the danger that the rescuer may accidentally fall into the water is always present, all personnel involved in the rescue attempt or within 10 feet of the river`s bank must wear specialized safety gear. All personnel should refrain from using turnout or bunker gear and remove fixed-brim firefighting or rescue helmets. Rescuers` protective equipment for swiftwater incidents include the following:

Head protection: Self-draining lightweight helmets with a chin strap.

Flotation: Personal flotation vests that have at least a Type III/V rating, assigned by the Coast Guard according to the amount of buoyancy in the vest.

Footwear: Lightweight is recommended to provide better traction and ensure that if the rescuer falls into the water, he will not be pulled feet-first down to the bottom, where he can become entrapped in rocks. No turnout boots!

Thermal protection. Lightweight layering is preferred. Wet or dry suits are recommended. No turnout/bunker gear!

RESCUE OPTIONS

Talk. Ideally, once you locate the victim, give him the following instructions:

1. “Place your body in a defensive swimming position: on your back, feet facing downstream and looking downstream.”

2. “Angle your body in a 45-degree position. Point your head toward the river bank.”

The goal of this procedure is to have the victim move toward the bank where rescuers are waiting. Once at the river`s edge, the victim can self-rescue or be assisted out of the water.

Flotation. Should you not be prepared to rescue a victim, try to get some type of flotation device–such as a spare tire, a car seat, an inner tube, a life vest, or a rescue ring buoy–to the victim. The flotation device will give the victim a fighting chance to stay alive until rescuers can set up for their rescue options. Most victims are not wearing flotation vests or thermal protection and are very susceptible to hypothermia. Providing some type of flotation early on also may help delay the onset of hypothermia by enabling victims to remain on top of the water.

Reach. This option–which should be used by specially trained rescuers only, including first responders and swiftwater rescue technicians–involves using any item as an extension of the rescuer. First responders can use equipment from their fire apparatus, including pike poles, rubbish hooks, ladders, rescue ropes (tension diagonal line), inflated fire hose, or the rescue curtain.

Rescuers can extend pike poles and rubbish hooks to victims who are within reach. If the victim is able to grab the device, he can be pulled to shore and rescued from the water. Rescuers must be on a belayed line so they don`t get pulled into the water, particularly in fast-moving water.

Ladders are useful to enable rescuers to reach victims who are down in channels. In this rescue approach, rescuers lower a ladder down into a channel and secure the ladder to the bank. Then, they climb down the ladder and extend a pike pole or rubbish hook to the victim, who then can be pulled to shore. This option is used mainly in stationary water or where the victim is stationary on an object.

Tension diagonal line (TDL). Rescue ropes have proven to be very versatile in a river rescue setting. For years, military personnel have used a TDL to move personnel and equipment from one river bank to the other. This rescue option is one of the easiest to establish and works extremely well for a conscious victim.

The TDL generally is a rope/line tensioned across a river or channel using a downstream angle of at least 45 degrees. The rope should be a 12- to 58-inch-diameter, low-stretch (static) type with a minimum tensile strength of 5,000 pounds. Use only ropes that meet NFPA standards.

For faster channels and channels exceeding 100 feet in width, an angle of 60 degrees provides the best angle for victim rescue. To establish a TDL, tie off the upstream rope end to a secure anchor point. A figure eight knot or a no-knot (rope is wrapped around the anchor point and run through a carabiner) will work best; however, any secure knot can be used. Once the desired angle is achieved, secure the downstream end of the rope by using a simple mechanical advantage system (3:1 Z-rig or pig rig, trucker`s hitch, and the like).

As the victim approaches the TDL, instruct him to remain on his back and place his arms over the line. The victim then will slide downstream toward the river bank, where the line is tensioned, and can be rescued. Two rescuers are needed: one to catch and hold onto the victim and one to assist the victim to shore. Both rescuers will be on belays.

If there is insufficient tension or an angle greater than 45 degrees (closer to a perpendicular angle) is used, the force of the water may pin the victim against the line and prevent him from moving downstream. If this should happen, retension the downstream line. The ideal height of the TDL is just off the surface of the water. If debris approaches before the victim, loosen the line and lift it above the debris.

Inflated fire hose. Fire hose from the fire apparatus is used in this option, requiring operations from a bridge over the water. Preferably, 134- or 212-inch hose in lengths of 50 to 100 feet should be used for this evolution. Remember that if using more than one section of hose, the coupling will be the weakest point. The force of the water may be strong enough to separate the hose at the couplings. Using a rope in connection with one section of hose works extremely well and will provide the needed length to allow the hose to reach the victim.

The hose may be inflated as follows: Cap/plug one end of the hose. Then, inflate the hose with an air cylinder and cap/plug the other end. With this method, some air will leak out before the cap can be secured. The use of shutoff butts is not recommended, since they do not shut off entirely and also will cause the air to leak. The best option is to manufacture a cap specifically designed to hold air by taking a 212-inch cap and machining a tire shredder valve into it. This will allow you to sufficiently inflate the hose to its desired pressure. The hose should be inflated to 50 to 60 psi to give it enough stability to prevent it from kinking.

Once the hose has been filled, anchor off the male end to a secure point on the side from which you will attempt a rescue. Anchoring the hose provides the pendulum point needed to move the victim to the desired river bank. Now, the hose is ready to set up and be suspended over the downstream side of a bridge. Once in the ready position, hold it approximately one foot above the water`s surface. Support the hose above the water with tag lines controlled by rescue personnel on the downstream side of the bridge. Do not tie the tag lines to the hose; instead, loop them under the hose. This allows the rescuers to hold the hose above the water and still release one end of the tag line. (If the line is tied to the hose, there is a chance the line might get caught on some obstacle in the water and cause the rescue option to fail.) Release one end of the tag line when the victim makes contact with the hose; the hose will swing or “pendulum” to the shore, where the victim can be rescued.

Should the river or channel be greater than your 50- or 100-foot section of inflated fire hose or the victim be on the other side of the channel, attach a rope to the end of the hose that will allow it to cover the entire channel width.

Once the hose is in the ready position, hold it there until the victim is spotted. Designate the rescuer with the best view for spotting the victim`s approaching the hose to give the call when the hose should be dropped. Ideally, the hose should be dropped into the victim`s lap simultaneously with the release of all tag lines.

At this point, the hose will pendulum in toward shore, where rescuers are ready to safely rescue the victim. Should the victim`s body not pendulum completely toward shore, rescuers can grab the hose or rope at the anchor point and pull/guide the victim in toward the river bank.

Rescue curtain. The rescue curtain is made from one-inch nylon webbing with a two-inch nylon webbing border. The webbing is constructed in a net of approximately one- to 112-foot squares with an ideal size of 6 feet ¥ 14 feet and tensile strength rated in excess of 4,000 pounds. This size is easy for rescuers to set up and manage when catching a victim. Larger nets can be used, but they may require additional rescuers. Smaller nets have proven unsuccessful in attempting to catch victims.

The rescue curtain works within an angle of from 45 to 60 degrees. Using reflective tape along the border will improve visibility. The rescue curtain has been successfully used in rivers/channels with velocities up to 18 mph. For greater velocities, the net should be set above the waterline so that the victim can grab it in the same manner as in the tension diagonal line rescue option. The rescue curtain can be used for conscious and unconscious victims, as well as for multiple victims.

The rescue curtain is suspended on a tensioned diagonal line. It is crucial that the angle of the line be set low enough to allow the net to move unobstructed toward the downstream point of attachment. You can use varying lengths of straps to attach the net to the tensioned diagonal line, allowing the rescue curtain to function in a variety of depths in the river/channel.

Attach the net to the tensioned diagonal line with carabiners. To control the net from bank to bank, attach tag lines to the four corners of the net with carabiners. Using the rescue curtain requires constant communication and coordination among rescuers controlling the tag lines. In the ready position, hold the net completely out of the water to prevent entanglement with debris. The two top tag lines are used to move the net from bank to bank and to center the net on the victim. The two bottom tag lines are used to set the net in the water, forming an “envelope.”

An upstream spotter has the rescuers center the net on the victim(s). When the victim is within 10 seconds of approaching the net, the upstream spotter directs the rescuers to set the net. The net should be allowed sufficient slack to form an “envelope.” This is the point at which good communication and coordination among all rescuers operating the tag lines is crucial. Rescuers must be made aware of when to let out the slack and when to apply tension to the tag line. Because of the extreme force of the water applied to the rescue curtain when it is in the set position, rescuers must not set the net until the victim is within 10 seconds of approaching it. Once the victim contacts the “envelope” of the submerged rescue curtain, rescuers holding the bottom tag lines maintain the desired tension needed while rescuers holding the top tag lines forcefully and expediently move the rescue curtain to the downstream point of attachment, where the victim(s) can be untangled and assisted to safety. At the rescue site, two rescuers will be needed. They again need to be on belays. One rescuer will grab and assist the rescuer to shore while the other rescuer assists in untangling the victim from the rescue curtain.

Only rescuers trained in using a rescue curtain should use this option. Just as in fishing, a net usually makes the “prey” unable to get away. The victim may be caught in a precarious position, and the rescuer may have to assist in untangling the victim.

Throw. A throw bag, one of the most versatile pieces of equipment available to the swiftwater rescuer, is the fastest rescue option to set up and can be used in a variety of places along the river/channel. It accounts for most of the rescues made in swiftwater incidents. The ideal throw bag used in a swiftwater rescue is a specially designed water rescue rope that floats on the surface of the water and is highly visible to the victim. However, the drop bags on the fire apparatus also have been used successfully. The throw-bag rope should be a minimum of 14 to 38 inch in diameter and 50 to 75 feet in length. It is recommended that the rope used in the “throw” option be a polypropylene or spectra-polypropylene type. The tensile strength should be a minimum of 1,200 pounds.

As is true for any rescue option, rescuer safety is paramount. The site selected for conducting the throw-bag rescue option is critical. Here is where good preplanning of your waterways comes in. The site selected should provide good footing for the rescuer (do not select cliff edges, tops of rocks, or areas where there is loose debris), be an open area with good access, present limited hazards, be at a distance appropriate for this rescue option, and be a good belay/retrieval location.

Using the throw bag is only one-half of this rescue option; the victim grabs the line and pendulums toward the river bank. Once the victim pendulums over to the river bank, a rescuer must retrieve and remove the victim from the water. Therefore, proper execution of the throw-bag rescue option involves coordination between the thrower and the catcher.

All rescuers near the water must be properly attired. In fast-moving water, belay or tether the thrower to a line to prevent the victim from pulling the thrower into the water, and securely fasten the end of the throw bag to the thrower`s attachment point. The catcher must be on a belay for safety reasons, as well as for the purpose of allowing the catcher to get to the victim(s)` location(s) so the rescue can be made.

Successfully throwing a line to the victim requires precision and accuracy. In some cases, the victim may not be able to swim the few feet upstream or downstream to reach the line. An underhanded throw, which spools the line out across the victim`s chest, has been proven to be the most effective type of throw; it increases the victim`s chance for grabbing the line.

The coordinated efforts of the thrower and the catcher are needed to retrieve the victim. After grabbing the rope, the victim is to be pendulumed toward shore. Chances for a successful rescue are increased if the thrower can aim the victim into the hands of the catcher. The thrower can accomplish this by letting out slack line or moving downstream toward the catcher. Once in the area of the catcher, the victim can be rescued from the water.

PREPLANNING AND TRAINING NECESSARY

Some of the land-based, low-risk rescue options may not work in all locations along the river/channel. The rescue officer/IC must determine which rescue options can be used along the area`s waterways. Preplanning of local channels and rivers is the key to an effective rescue.

Having an established first-responder swiftwater rescue program affords a department a safety edge in mitigating swiftwater incidents. It guarantees an incident response, but it offers several rescue options. With training, it will provide for a coordinated effort of all personnel involved in a swiftwater rescue incident. We have restricted first responders to performing only low-risk, land-based rescues, since they have received only minimum training.

Even though some members of your command may have a swimming background or limited swiftwater training, the incident commander is responsible for the overall safety of the swiftwater incident. The IC must ensure that low-risk options are evaluated and tried prior to using a high-risk option. This is where preplanning of the waterways comes into play. When preplanning is used, personnel know which rescue option should be used at various sites. With this knowledge, the IC can determine which option to use. In any rescue option, low- or high-risk, we may not be able to rescue the victim. Swiftwater rescues require a high degree of discipline from rescuers. Without training, preplanning, safety equipment, and an action plan, a rescue usually will be unsuccessful. Even with such planning, rescues can be unsuccessful. There are no absolutes when it comes to ensuring that victims will be saved from swiftwater.

The interaction between first responders and swiftwater rescue response teams relies first on the deployment of low-risk, land-based rescue options. Even if you arrive on scene and do not have sufficient time to set up for a rescue, the actions you take–talking to the victim and providing a flotation device, for example–can lengthen the time element needed for a successful rescue downstream and give the victim a fighting chance for survival while allowing additional companies downstream to set up for a rescue attempt.

Adhering to these guidelines, or those developed by your department, will increase the safety margin for all personnel at the scene of a swiftwater incident. n

The tension diagonal line is one of the easiest rescue options, provided the victim can assist in the rescue. In this training evolution, the line is secured upstream to a ladder/fence-post combination and downstream with a simple mechanical advantage system. Here, the “victim” has a hold of the line and is making his slide downstream to rescuers waiting on the bank. (Photos courtesy of author.)

(top) The inflated hose rescue technique works from a bridge over the channel or river. Note that the tag line in the middle is simply looped around the hose. The hose is suspended just above the water`s surface. Once the hose is lowered and the victim grabs on, the member at far right will release his end, allowing the hose to swing out to the opposite bank, where the “catchers” await–on belay lines (bottom left). (Bottom right) The equipment needed to inflate fire hose: a manufactured 212-inch hose cap with a tire shredder valve, air bag regulator, and SCBA air cylinder.

(Left) The rescue curtain is suspended on a tension diagonal line (secured with carabiners) and controlled by four lines clipped to each corner with carabiners. The curtain here is in the “ready” position. (Center) The net is in the “envelope” position and the victim “captured.” (Right) The net with the victim is pulled to the bank. One rescuer will untangle and the other will assist the victim up to the shore.

(Top left) The throw-bag option relies on the coordinated efforts of a thrower and a catcher. The thrower (top right) must be accurate; the victim may not have the strength to swim for the rope. (Far left) Extension devices may be advantageous to the catcher. (Left) In this actual incident, a victim caught in a low-head dam was successfully rescued using the throw-bag method.

GARY E. SEIDEL is a 16-year veteran and battalion chief of the Los Angeles City (CA) Fire Department. A swiftwater rescue instructor/trainer, he developed the department`s swiftwater rescue program. Seidel is an adjunct instructor at the National Fire Academy and a member of the Los Angeles Interagency Swift Water Rescue Committee and the Mayor`s Task Force on Flood and River Rescue Incidents. He has an associate`s degree in fire science and a bachelor`s degree in environmental biology and lectures extensively on swiftwater rescue.